PC 2109 
,L43 
1844 
Copy 1 




Class. 



PRESENTED BY 






^^^; 






/ /^^/jr 



FRENCH GRAMMAR; 



CONTAINING, 



BESIDES THE RULES OF THE LANGUAGE, 



A COMPLETE 



TREATISE ON PREPOSITIONS. 



By COUNT DE LAPORTE, 

TEACHER OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE IN BOSTON. 



u I f ~ 



BOSTON: 

OTIS, BROADERS, AND COMPANY. 
1844. 



TC 






L^3 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1843, by 

Otis, Broaders, & Company, 

in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts. 



GIFT _, 

Estate of 



CAMBRIDGE: 
METCALF, KEITH, AND NICHOL! 

PRINTERS TO THE UNIVERSITY. 



v9 



PREFACE. 



Since so many men of talent and experience have 
presented to the public the results of their labors 
in numerous volumes for the assistance of foreigners 
in the study of the French Language, it would seem 
that a teacher ought to be able to select from among 
these a sure guide for his pupils. It might be pre- 
sumed that we had all the means that could be of 
any use to the student in the acquisition of the lan- 
guage, and that ambition only, and the vain desire 
of introducing one's name to the public, could in- 
duce any one to attempt a new publication on the 
subject. But, unfortunately, such is not the case ; 
new efforts are necessary to assist teachers and 
pupils, more especially because so many Englishmen 
and Americans are undertaking to teach a language 
which is not their own. A work is required which 
shall enter into a thorough investigation of the prin- 
ciples of our language, and enable the student to 
understand and appreciate fully its genius and its 
beauties. 

I am far from pretending to possess the ability to 
accomplish such a task ; but experience has done 
much for me, by showing me those points which 



JV m PREFACE. 

foreigners find the most difficult to understand ; and 
it is the result of that experience, which I now pre- 
sent to the public, in the hope of doing some good, 
if not all that could be desired. 

Acting on the principle that there is nothing new 
in the code of the law of languages, my object has 
been to collect the elements of the science scattered 
in hundreds of volumes, and to appropriate to myself 
what I found useful in them, adopting entire what 
I thought clear and satisfactory, modifying and some- 
times changing altogether what did not appear to 
me calculated to reach at once the mind of the 
student. 

I have said but little as to Pronunciation, being 
satisfied with the inutility of the attempt. If the 
pupil has a teacher, it is through the organ of hear- 
ing that he will learn it ; if he has none, there is 
no use in attempting to represent on paper, by 
words, what has no possible representation, except 
in sounds. If the English language had any near 
similarity to the French, in its intonations, a com- 
parison could be established between the two ; but 
such is not the case ; there are no two sounds ex- 
actly alike in either. There is, besides, great danger 
in attempting to give an idea of French sounds by 
means of English letters ; the pupil, anxious to pro- 
nounce something resembling French, is constantly 
referring to his fancifully written w r ords, and pays 
little attention to the real ones, thus engrafting on 
his mind the barbarous orthography, which he is 



PREFACE. V 

afterwards too much inclined to remember, instead 
of that which really belongs to the language. I 
have therefore confined myself, in this important 
matter, to indicating only what is of an easy and 
general application. 

The subject of Syntax has not been separately 
treated in this Grammar, because this division is 
entirely conventional, and is often troublesome to 
the student when he is seeking for a rule, causing 
confusion in his mind, and a loss of time, which 
should be carefully avoided. 

The Verbs will be found conjugated, on the same 
page, under their four different forms, so as to catch 
the eye at once, and to enable the pupil to compare 
them with facility ; and all the irregular verbs are 
conjugated, with such remarks and tables, as to ren- 
der this tedious task comparatively easy. All that 
can be said on Participles has been carefully arranged 
under different heads, according to the decisions of 
the French Academy and of our best grammarians. 

I have treated at great length of Prepositions, the 
study of which presents an almost insurmountable 
difficulty to foreigners. Tables and illustrations will 
be found, under their different heads, of all the 
adjectives and verbs, with the prepositions which 
they respectively take before verbs and nouns. This 
part of the book is of the utmost importance, and 
should be consulted by the student until he becomes 
perfectly acquainted with the philosophy and genius 
of the language. 



VI PREFACE. 

Finally, an elaborate table of contents will facili- 
tate research in regard to the Rules. 

No Exercises will be found in this Grammar ; its 
size has prevented it ; but the author hopes soon to 
publish another work which will supply the defi- 
ciency. 

In presenting this book to the public, I must 
apologize for its faults of style. I have aimed to be 
clear, and if I have succeeded in this point, I hope 
to be excused for deficiencies resulting from the 
disadvantage under which I have labored, as a 
foreigner. 



CONTENTS. 



Definition of the word Grammar, 

French Alphabet, 

Vowels, .... 

Letter y, 

Consonants, 

Letter n, 



Accentuation. 



Definition of the Accents, 
Acute Accent, 
Grave Accent, 
Circumflex Accent, 



Pronunciation. 



Simple Sound of the vowels, with and without the Accent, 
Simple Sounds produced by a union of Vowels, and of 

Vowels and Consonants, .... 

Nasal Sounds, 
Sounds of the Consonants, 
The letter h, . 
The letter j, 
The liquid /, 
The letters m and n, 
The letter s, . 
The letters t, and th, 
The letter x, . 
The letter w, 
A Table, showing how the Simple Sounds are produced 

by the union of Letters different from those mentioned 

pages 4 and 5, sections 18 to 20, ... 

Diphthongs, ...... 

Pronunciation of Words ending in ble, bre, cle, ere, dre,Jk, 

fre, gle, gre, pie, pre, tre, .... 



Page. 


Section. 


1 




1 


] to 6 


3 


7 to 9 


3 


8 


3 


10 


3 


11 


3 


12, 13 


3 


14 


3 


15, 16 


3 


17 



16 



4 


19 


4,5 


19,20 


5 


21 


6 


22 


6 


23 


6 


24,25 


7,8 


26 to 32 


8 


33 to 35 


8 


36 to 39 


8 


40 


9 


41 


9 


42, N 43 


10 


44 



12 



45 



CONTENTS. 








Page. 


Section. 


UNCTUATION. 






. 


12 


46 




12 


47,48 


. 


13 


49, 50 



VUl 



Signs used in Punctuation, 
Cedilla and Diaeresis, 
Hyphen and Apostrophe, 

Elision. 
When and how an Elision must take place, 

Of Genders. 

Definition of Gender, .... 

Masculine and Feminine Terminations, . 

Words having a Fixed Gender, independently of 
their Terminations ; as, God, Angels, &c, 

Names of Living Beings, and Proper Names, . 

Diminutive Names of Animals, 

Diminutive Names of Inanimate Objects, 

Names of Days, Months, Years, &c, 

Names of Trees and Shrubs, 

Names of Metals, 

Names of Colors, 

Names of Mountains, 

Names of Winds, 

Names of Country, . 

Names of Towns, 

Ordinal, Distributive, and Proportional Numbers, 

Nouns expressing Virtues and Crimes, 

Genders of Nouns mostly depending on their Term! 
nations ...... 

Names of Fruits, Grain, Plants, and Flowers, . 

A Table of the Gender of all Nouns according to 
their Termination, 

A Table of Nouns which are Masculine in one Sig- 
nification, and Feminine in another, 

Terminations showing the Similarity of Words in 
French and in English, . 

Words differing only by their Termination, 



13, 14 51 to 57 



, 15 


58 to 62 


15 


62,63 


15 


64,65 


,16 


66 to 69 


16 


70 to 72 


16 


73,74 


17 


75 to 77 


17 


78 


17 


80 


18 


81 


18 


82 


18 


83 


18 


84 


18 


85,86 


18 


87,88 


19 


89 


19 




19 


90 



19 to 20 



22 



Of Homonyms. 

Of the Article. 

Its Definition, .... 

Agreement of the Article, 
Elision of the Article, 
Contraction of the Article, 
Definition of Nouns taken Definitely, 
Repetition of the Article before Nouns . 



24 
24 

24 to 37 



91 

92 

93 
94 

95 



38 


96 to 99 


38 


100 


39 


101, 102 


39 


103 to 107 


40 


108 to 111 


41 


112 



42 


113 


42 


114,115 


43 


116 


43 


117 



CONTENTS. IX 

Page. Section. 

The Article, being Definite, is only placed before 
Nouns used in a Definite Sense, or Words employ- 
ed as such, .... 

Partitive Article some before a Noun, 

•' " " "an Adjective, . 

" " " with a Negation, . 

" " " before a Noun followed by an 

Adjective, . . .43 118 

" " " before a Noun composed of an 

Adjective and a Noun, .... 

Difference between Partitive and General Sense, 

Use of the Article before Names of Countries, 
" " " Rivers, 

The Article is not used before Nouns taken Indefi- 
nitely, ...... 

Cases in which the Article is not used before Com- 
mon Nouns, ..... 

The Article is not used with mon, ton, son, notre, vo- 
tre, leur, ce, nul, aucun, quelque, chaque, touts, plu- 
sieurs, tel, and the Cardinal Numbers, 

Use of the Article with Proper Names of Deities, 
Men, Animals, Towns, and Particular Places, 

Of the Article before a Noun preceded by an Adverb 
of Quantity, ..... 

Of the Article with Nouns expressing the Quality 
of a preceding Noun, .... 

Of the Article with a Noun of Measure, Weight, and 
Purchase, ...... 

Of the Article with plus and moins, 

" with two or more Adjectives, 

A Table of Nouns employed with or without the Ar- 
ticle, according to the Definite or Indefinite Mean- 
ing, . . . . . . 53 to 57 

A Table of Nouns used without the Article after 

Verbs of which they are the Complement, . 57 to 59 

Examples of Cases in which the Article is not used 
with Nouns preceded by a Preposition, . . 59, 60 164 

Of the Substantive. 

Of Number in the Substantive. 
Of Gender " " . . . 

Amour, ..... 

Automne, ..... 

Chose ..... 

Comte Duche, ..... 
Couple, ..... 



44 


119, 120 


44 


121 


44, 49 


122 to 129 


45 


130,131 


46 


132 to 134 


47 


135 to 144 


49 


145, 146 


49,50 


147 to 149 


50,51 


150 to 154 


51 


155 


51,52 


156, 157 


52 


158 to 161 


52,53 


162, 163 



60,61 


165 to 168 


61 


169 to 172 


61 to 63 


173 to 180 


63 


182 


63 


183 


63 


184 


63 


185 


63 


186 



X 


CONTENTS. 










Page. 


Section. 


Gens, 


. 


64 


187, 188 


Gens with Tout, . 


• 


64 


189 to 192 


Delices, 


• • . . 


64 


193 


Orgue, 


. 


64 


194 


Foudre 


. 


64 


195 


Personne, 


. 


65 


196 


Of 


Number in the Substantive. 


65 


197 to 200 


Formation of the Plural, 


.... 


65,66 


201 to 205 


Orthography of Nouns e 


nding in ant and ent, 


66,67 


206 to 209 


Nouns which do not take the Plural Terminations, . 


67,68 


210 to 212 


Nouns which have no Plural, 


68 


213 to 217 


" " Singular, 


69 


218 


Table of Nouns which 


are sometimes used in the 






Singular, and sometimes in the Plural, 


69 


219 


Amertume, 


. 


69 


220 


Ardeur, 


. • • . 


69 


221 


Bassesse, 


. . . • 


69 


222 


Beaute, 


.... 


70 


223 


Bont6 . 


• . • 


70 


224 


Bienseance, 


. 


71 


225 


Bonheur, 


.... 


71 


226 


Chagrin, 


. 


71 


227 


Charite, 


. 


71 


228 


Colere, 


r • • 


72 


229 


Captivite, 


. 


72 


230 


Clarte, 




72 


231 


Conduite, 




72 


232 


Connaissance, 


. 


72 


233 


Consideration, 


. 


72 


234 


Contentment, 


• 


73 


235 


Contrainte, 


. 


73 


236 


Coucher and Lever, 


73 


237 


Courage, 


. 


73 


238 


Curiosite, 


. 


73 


239 


Douceur, 


. 


73 


240 


Desespoir, 




73 


241 


Enfance, . 


• 


74 


242 


Espoir, 


. 


74 


243 


Experience, 


. 


74 


244 


Esprit, 


. 


74 


245 


Felicite, 




75 


246 


Fierte, 


. 


75 


247 


Flamme, 


. 


75 


248 


Fureur, 


. 


76 


249 


Gloire, 


. 


76 


250 





CONTENTS. 




XI 






Page. 


Section. 


Gout, 


• 


76 


251 


Haine, 




76 


252 


Haleine, 


. • • . 


77 


253 


Hasard, 




77 


254 


Honte, 


. 


77 


255 


Hymen, . 




77 


256 


Honneur, 


. 


78 


257 


Inclemence, 




78 


258 


Indecence, . 


• 


78 


259 


Indignite, 




78 


260 


Indiscretion, 


. 


78 


261 


Ignorance, 




79 


262 


Ignominie, 


. 


79 


263 


Injustice, 




79 


264 


Impudence, 


. 


79 


265 


Impudeur, 




80 


266 


Impuissance, 


. 


80 


267 


Innocence, 




80 


268 


Ivresse, 


• 


80 


269 


Marty re, . 




81 


270 


Mepris, 


. 


81 


271 


Misere, . 




81 


272 


Ouie, ouies, . 


. 


81 


273 


Pauvrete, 




81 


274 


Penchant, 


. 


82 


275 


Rage, 




82 


276 


Reconnaissance, 


. 


82 


277 


Renommee, 




82 


278 


Repos, 


. 


83 


280 


Sante, 




83 


281 


Silence, 


. 


83 


282 


Tendresse, 




83 


283 


Vue, 


• 


83 


284 


Table of a few Nouns wh 


ich have no Plural in any 






Meaning, 


. 


83 


286, 287 


Formation of the Plural in 


Compound Nouns, 


84 


288 


(C (( 


" formed 






of a Substantive and an 


Adjective, 


85 


289 


When there is a 


Word which is never used 






by itself, . 


. 


85 


290 


Formed of two S 


ubstantives following each 






other without a 


Preposition, 


85 


291 


Formed of two 


Substantives united by a 






Preposition, 


• • • • 


86 


292 


Formed of a Sub 


stantive joined to a Verb, 






an Adverb, or s 


i Preposition, 


86 


293 to 295 


Formed of Word 


s which never vary, 


87 


296 



Xll CONTENTS. 



Page. Section. 



94 




94,95 


326, 327 


95 


328, 329 


96 


330 


96 


331 


96 


332 


96,97 


333, 334 



Of the Noun considered in regard to its functions of 

Speech, ..... 87 297,298 

Of the Noun used as a subject, ... 87 299 

" " in an Apostrophe, . 87,88 300,301 

" " as an Object or Regimen, . 88, 89 302 to 306 

Of Number in the Substantives which are Objects or Regimens of another 
Substantive. 
Substantives immediately governed by another with 

the Preposition de, of, . 89 to 93 307 to 320 

Of Substantives with the Preposition de, of, but not 

preceded immediately by another Substantive, 93 to 95 321 to 325 
Of Substantives preceded, as Determinative, by 
any Preposition but de, of, 
Preposition a, . 
" en, 

" par, 

" pour, 

" sans, 

" sur, . 

General Rules on the same Subject, . . 97 to 99 335 to 343 

Of the Adjective. 
Definition, ..... 

Variation of the Adjectives, 

Of the Gender in the Adjectives, 

Formation of the Feminine in the Adjectives end- 
ing with an e mute, .... 
Not ending with an e mute, 
Ending in an, ien, on, 

" with any other Consonant than m 
orn, . 
Exceptions to this Rule : 

Adjectives ending in c, . . . 102, 103 364 to 366 

J •> 
" g, • 

• " " el, eil, as, ol, ul, os, ot, 

" " eur, . 

" " teur, 

" " irieur, . 

General Remarks on these Terminations, . 
Adjectives ending in eur, having no Feminine, 

Formation of the Feminine of the Adjectives, fou, 

vieuoc, beau, nouveucc, mou, 
Adjectives having no Feminine, or no Masculine, 



101 


344 to 350 


101 


351 to 353 


101 


354 to 356 


101 


357 


102 


358,359 


102 


360 to 362 



102 363 



103 


367 


103 


368 


103 


369 


104 


370 


104 


371,372 


104 


373 


105 


374 


105 


375 


105 


376, 377 


105 


378 


106 


379 



CONTENTS. 



Xlll 



Page. 

Nouns and Adjectives of Number. 106 

A Table of Cardinal, Ordinal, and Collective numbers, 106 

Of Numbers, speaking of the Days of the Month . 107 

Of the Number eleven, .... 107 

Peculiarity of the Number one joined to 20, 30, 40, &c. 107 

Remark on two, three, &c. joined to, 20, 30, 40, 108 
Number one before hundred, . . . .108 

Remark on seventy and ninety, . . . 108 

Numerical Adjectives of a peculiar nature, . . 108 

One thousand, un millier . . . 108 

Of Distributive Numbers, the half, the third, &c. . 108 

Of Proportional Numbers, as the double, &c. . 108 

Of Number in Adjectives. . 109 

General Rule, ..... 109 
Adjectives ending in s, or x, . . . . 109 
" " au, al, 109 
Cardinal Numbers indicating the Plural Number, . 109 
Of the Adjective eighty, . . . . 109 
" one hundred, . . .110 
14 one thousand, . . . 110 
'* cru and nu, . . .110 
penitentiel, . . . 110 
11 ending in ant, ent, . . .110 
u tout, all, . . . Ill 
Adjectives ending in al, (remarks,) . . .111 
" " al, making the Plural in awe, 111 
" " " " " with an s, 113 
Adjectives ending in al, having no Plural in the Mas- 
culine, ... 113 

Of the Degrees of Signification of the Adjectives. 

Definition, . . . . . 113 

Positive, . . . . . .113 

Comparative, . . . . .113, 414 

Adjectives which are Comparative by themselves, 

meilleur, pire, moindre, . . . .114 

Difference between these Adjectives and the Adverbs 

mieux, pis, moins, .... 

Superlative, ..... 
" Absolute, .... 

11 Relative, .... 

Of the. Place of Adjectives. 

Definition, ..... 

Adjectives always placed before the Noun, 
b 



Section. 

380 

381 
382, 383 
384 
385 
386 
387 
388 
389 
390 
391 
392 

393 

394, 395 
396 
397 
398 
399 
400 
401 to 404 
405 
406 
407, 408 
409 
410 
411 
412 

413 



414 
415 

415 to 420 

421 



114 


422 


115 


423 


115 


424, 425 


115 


426, 427 


116 


428 


116 


429 



XIV CONTENTS. 



Page. Seetfon, 

43d 



117 


433 


117 


434, 435 


117 


436 


118 


437 


118 


438 


118 


439, 440 


118 


441, 442 



Exception First, . . . . , n§ 

Cardinal Adjectives used in French instead of the Or- 
dinal used in English, . . . .116 431 

Cases in which the Adjectives mentioned in section 
429 are placed after the Noun, . . . 117 432 

Two Adjectives cannot qualify a Noun without a Con- 
junction, ...... 

Exception, ..... 

Adjectives formed from Past Participles go after the 
Noun, .... . 

Place of Adjectives formed from the Present Participle, 
expressing form, color, taste, flavor, 
sound, action, effect, country, and those ending in 
esque, il, ule, and most of those ending in ic, icgue, 

Exceptions, ..... 

General remark, . 

A List showing the meaning of several sentences ac- 
cording to the place of the following Adjectives : 
grand, mauvais, petit, Ion, brave, cruel, mort, cer- 
taine, commune, faux, dernier, saint, sage, gros, 
gallant, gentil, nouveau, pauvre, plaisant, haut, hon- 
nete, malhonnete, m^chant, furieux, mortel, vilain, 
seul, and riche, . . . . . 119 443 to 487 

Of Adjectives considered in reference to their relation 
with other words, ..... 122 488 

Of the Agreement of Adjectives. 
Rule of the Agreement, .... 
Exceptions ; Adjectives nu, demi, and feu, 
Adjectives used to qualify Verbs, . 

" as Prepositions, 

Agreement of Comparatives and Superlatives, 
Adjectives referring to two or more Substantives, 123 
Several Adjectives qualifying a Noun, 
Adjectives used to qualify another Adjective, 
Adjectives always applied to persons, others to things, 
Adjectives preceded by the Noun air, . 
Construction of. Sentences expressing Measure, 

Of the Adjective with the Article. 
Adjectives expressing Modes and Quantities, . 
" used as Nouns, 
" of different Significations accompanying 

a Noun, . . . . . 127 518 

Adjectives of the same Significations accompanying 

a Noun, 128 519 

Adjectives of different Signification although not in- 
compatible, 128 520 



122 


489 


122 


490, 491 


122 


492 


122 


493, 494 


123 


495 to 497 


124 


499 to 503 


124 


504, 50 5 


124 


506 


125 


507 


125 


508 to 510 


126 


511 to 515 


127 


516 


127 


517 



Page. 


Section. 


128 


521 


129 


522 


129 


523 


129 


524, 525 


129 


526 


129 


527 


130 


528 


130 


529 


130 


530 


130 


531, 532 



CONTENTS. XV 

Adjectives prefixed to Proper Names, 
Superlative Relative preceding a Substantive, 

" " following " 

Exceptions referring to the Adjective tout, 

Regimen of Adjectives. 

Definition, ..... 

Adjectives having no Regimen, 
" " a Regimen, 

" " sometimes a Regimen, sometimes 

none, ...... 

Rule in these cases, . 

Adjectives relating to Persons, or Things, 

Adjectives which may or may not be restricted by a 

Verb, 130 533 

Of the Pronoun. 
Definition, ..... 

Use of the Pronoun, .... 

Classification of Pronouns, 

Of Personal Pronouns. 
Definition ...... 

Personal Pronouns Nominative. 

Of Personal Pronouns Objective. 

Employed as direct objects in the Affirmative Form, 
" " "in the Interrogative Form, 

" as indirect objects in the Affirmative Form 
with the Preposition o, to, . 

Employed with the Preposition in the Interrogative 
Form, ...... 

Of the Personal Pronoun of the Third Person Singu- 
lar and Plural, applied to Things, 

Of Personal Pronouns employed as indirect objects 
with the Preposition de, of, 

Of him, of her, of it, of them, expressed by en, 

Personal Pronouns used objectively in the Imperative 
Mood, ...... 

Recapitulation of the preceding Rules, 

Objective Pronouns always used after the Verb, . 
" " " " before " ■ 

Objective Personal Pronouns sometimes used with 
and sometimes without a Preposition, 

Objective Personal Pronouns never used with a Prep- 
osition, ..... 



131 


534 


131 


535, 536 


132 


537 


132 


538 


132 


539, 540 


133 


541, 542 


133 


543 


134 


544, 545 


134 


546 to 549 


134 


550, 551 


135 


552 


136 


553, 554 


136 


555, 556 


137 


557 


137 


558 


137 


559 


138 


560 


138 


56 



139 


566 to 568 


140 


569 


141 


570 


141 


571 to 574 


141 


575, 576 


141 


577 


142 


578 


142 


579 


142 


580 



XVI CONTENTS. 

Page. Section. 

Objective Personal Pronouns used sometimes before 

and sometimes after the Verb, . . . 138 562 

Remarks on lui, nous, vous, le, la, les, y, and en, . 138 563 

Of Reflective Pronouns. . 138 564, 565 

Of Reciprocal Pronouns. 
Definition, ..... 

Reciprocal Pronouns used in reference to two or 
more persons, . . 

Of Personal Pronouns used as Nominatives. 
Rules relating to the case when instead of one there 
are several Pronouns used as Nominatives of the 
same Verb, ..... 
Gender of Personal Pronouns used as Nominatives, 
Place of, in Affirmative sentences, 
" in Interrogative, " 
" with a Verb in the Subjunctive without a 

Conjunction expressed before it, 

" in a quotation, 

" when the Verb is preceded by any of the 

following Adverbs: aussi, peut-Ure, 

encore, toujour s, en vain, vainement, 

aumoins,du moins, . . . 142 581,582 

When Personal Pronouns Nominative are omitted 
and replaced by the Objective, moi, toi, lui, elle, 
nous, vous, eux, ..... 

Use of the Pronouns lui and eux, as Nominative 

in Distributive sentences, 
The Nominative Pronouns il, elle, Us, elles, must 
always refer to a Noun, either Nominative or Ob- 
jective, employed definitely, but never to both, . ■ 

Repetition of Personal Pronouns. 
Je and tu, nous, vous, .... 

II, elle, Us, elles, ..... 

Cases when the Personal Pronouns of the Three 
Persons should be repeated. Exceptions, 

Of Personal Pronouns employed Objectively. 
Remark, ...... 

Objective Pronouns used with a Preposition, 

" " " in the Imperative Mood, 

Respective place of Objective Pronouns before the 

Verb, 

" " " after the Verb, 

Conclusion drawn from the preceding Rules, 



142 


583 to 188 


143 


589 


144 


590 to 595 


145 


596, 597 


146 


598 to 604 


147 


605 to 608 


148 


609, 610 


149 


611 


149 


612 to 615 


150 


616 


150 


617,618 


151 


619, 620 



CONTENTS. XV11 

Page. Section. 

Moi and toi used as direct objects, . . 151 621 

Moi, toi, lui, elk, eux, elks, used as indirect objects, 151 622 

Use of the Pronoun soi, . . . 151 623 to 626 

Meaning of the Pronoun moi, with the Verb donner, 152 627 

Of Personal Pronouns Objective applied to Persons or Things. 

Le, la, ks, . . . . . . 152 628 

Elk, elks, lui, leur, .... 152 629 

" " " with the Prepositions de, a, pour, 

apres en, &c. . . . 153 630, 326 

" " " used with the Verb to be, . 153 633, 635 
Peculiarity of the Pronouns eux, lui, leur, &c. 

speaking of things. . . . .154 636 

Se and soi, ..... 154 637 to 641 

Y, 154, 155 642, 643 

En, ...... 155 644 

Le, la, les, invariable when referring to any other 

word than a Noun, .... 155, 165 645 to 650 

Of the Adjective Possessive Pronouns. 

Definition, 157 651,652 

Adjective Possessive Pronouns always joined to a Noun, 157 653 to 656 
Agreement of the Adjective Possessive Pronoun 

with the following Noun, ... 159 667, 668 

Repetition of these Pronouns, .... 160 669 
Use of these Pronouns when speaking of a part of 

our body or the faculties of our mind, . . 160 670 to 675 
Use of these Pronouns with Nouns followed by qui 

or que, ...... 162 676 

Use of these Pronouns in relation to persons, things 

personified, or things alone, . . . 162 677 to 684 

Of Adjective Possessive Pronouns ivhich are never joined to a Noun. 

Definition, . . . . . . 164 685 to 687 

Use of these Pronouns, . . . .165 688 to 693 

Of Demonstrative Pronouns. 
Definition, . ... 165 694 
Demonstrative Pronouns always placed before a Noun, 167 695 
" " " followed by a Pre- 
position, or a Relative Pronoun, . . . 169 696 to 702 
Demonstrative Pronouns preceded by a Noun, . 169 703, 704 
" " standing by themselves, . 170 705 
" " referring only to things, 
taken indefinitely or representing an idea already 
expressed, ..... 170 706 

b* 



XVlll CONTENTS. 

Page. Section. 

Of the Pronoun ce joined to the Verb to be. 
Used of the Pronoun in reference to Number and 

Gender, ..... 

Place of the Pronoun in Interrogative Sentences, . 
Gallicisms formed with this Pronoun and the Verb 

to be, 
Repetition of this Pronoun, 
When ce should not be expressed, 
When it is should be expressed by il est or c'est, . 

Of the Pronoun ce joined to a Relative Pronoun, 

Of the Relative Pronoun. 

Definition, ..... 

Of the Relative Pronoun qui. 

Use of the Pronoun qui as a Nominative . 
" " "as Objective, 

Qui used for celui que, .... 

Qui governed by Jeand followed by a Personal Pro- 
noun, ..... 

Agreement of qui with its antecedent, . . 

Place of qui in reference to its Antecedent, 1' 

Cases in which the Antecedent of qui may be un- 
derstood, 

Qui used as the Subject of a Proposition either de- 
terminative or explicative, 

When the Antecedent of qui is a noun, this noun 
should always be definite, 

Of the Relative Pronoun que. 

Definition of the Pronoun que, 

Place of the Pronoun que in reference to its Ante- 
cedent, . 

Distinction between que, Relative, Exclamative, or 
Conjunctive, ..... 

Of the Relative Pronoun Lequel. 

Definition, 185, 186 763 to 766 

Lequel used with the Preposition de, . . 186 767 to 769 

"a, . 187 770,771 

Of the Relative Pronouns Dont, De qui, Duquel, fyc, and Quoi. 
Definition, 187 to 189 772 to 779 

Of the Relative Pronoun Oti. 189 780 to 782 

Of the Absolute Pronouns. 
Definition, 190 783,784 



. 171 


707, 708 


171 


709 


. 172 


710 


172 


711, 712 


. 172 


713, 714 


173 


715 to 721 


. 174 


722 to 727 


175 


728 to 733 


176 


734 


. 176 


735 


176 


736 


. 177 


737, 738 


177 


739 


77 to 180 


740 to 749 


180 


750 


181 


751 to 754 


182 


755, 756 


183 




183 


757 


183 


758 


184, 185 


759 to 762 



CONTENTS, XIX 

Page, Section. 

How to ascertain when qui is an Absolute Pronoun, 190 785 

Use of qui as an Absolute Pronoun, . . 190, 191 786 to 791 

Of the Absolute Pronouns que and quoi, . 191, 192 792 to 796 

44 quel, ... 192 797 

44 " oil, d'oii, par oil, . 192 798 

Of Indefinite Pronouns. 

Definition, . . . . . . 193 799 to 801 

Of Indefinite Pronouns never joined to a Noun, . 193 802 

Of the Pronoun on, . . . 194 to 196 803 to 809 

" quelqu'un, . . 196, 197 810 to 815 

" quiconque, . . 197 816,817 

" chacun, . . 198 to 201 818 to 831 

" autrui, . . . 201 832 to 834 

" VunVautre, . . 201,203 835 to 838 

" personne, . . 202 to 204 839 to 844 

" rien, . . . 294, 295 844 to 850 

Of Indefinite Pronouns always joined to a Noun, 205 851 

Of the Pronoun quelque, . . . 205 852 

" chaque, . . 206 853 to 856 

44 quelconque, . . 207 857 to 859 

44 certain, . . 207 860,861 

un, 207 862 

Of Indefinite Pronouns sometimes joined to a Noun, 

and sometimes not, .... 208 863 

Of the Pronoun nul, . . 208, 209 864 to 867 

" aucun, . . . 209, 210 868 to 871 

pasun, . . 210,211 872 to 876 

autre, . . . 211 877,878 

44 Vun et V autre; ni Vun ni 

V autre, ' . 211 to 213 879 to 884 

44 mSme, . . . 214,215 885 to 890 

44 tel, . . . 215, 216 891 to 894 

44 plusieurs, . . 216 895,896 

44 tout, . . 216 to 218 897 to 913 

Of Indefinite Pronouns followed by que, . 219 914 

Of the Pronoun qui que, qui que ce soit, . 219 915 to 917 

44 quoi que ce soit, . 219, 220 918 to 920 

44 quelque, ... 220 921,922 

44 quelque que, . 221 923 to 926 

44 tel que, ... 221 927 

44 tout que . . 222 928 

Of the Verb. 

Definition, . . . . . 222 to 224 929 to 934 

Of Numbers and Persons in the Verbs, 224, 225 935 to 942 



XX 



CONTENTS, 



Page. 
Of the Tenses of the Verbs. 
Definition, ..... 
Of the Present, 
" Imperfect, 
" Preterite Definite, . 
" Preterite Indefinite, 

Pluperfect, . 
" Preterite Anterior, 

Of other Ways of expressing- the Past, 
Of the Forms of Verbs which relate to 
the Past, . 
Of the Future, .... 

" Future Past, .... 
Remarks on the Tenses, 

Of Moods. 

Definition, ..... 
Of the Indicative Mood, 
" Conditional Mood, 
" Imperative Mood, 
" Subjunctive Mood, 

Of the Imperfect of the Subjunctive, 
" Preterite " 

" Pluperfect " 

Of the Infinitive Mood, 

Of the Present Participle, 

" Past Participle, . 

Recapitulation of Moods and Tenses, 

Of the Different Sorts of Verbs, 
Auxiliary Verbs, .... 

Active Verbs, .... 

Passive Verbs, ..... 
Neuter Verbs, 

Reflective Verbs, .... 

Reciprocal Verbs, .... 
Impersonal Verbs, .... 

Of Conjugations. 
Of Persons and Numbers, 
Of Different Sorts of Conjugations, 

Of Middle Verbs. 
Meaning of, . • . • 

Of a Choice between the Auxiliary Verbs To have and 
A List of Verbs always Conjugated with to be, 269 

" " to have, 270 



Section. 



226 


943 to 946 


227, 228 


947 to 952 


228 to 230 


953 to 960 


231 


961 


232, 233 


962 to 964 


233 


965 


234 


966 


st, 234 


967 


to 




235 


968 


235, 236 


969, 970 


236 


971 


237 


972, 973 


238 




238 


974 to 978 


239 


979 


239 to 241 


980 to 984 


242, 243 


985 to 989 


243 


991,992 


244 


993 


244 


994 


245 


995 


245 


996 


246 


997 


246 


998 


247 


999 to 1004 


, 248 


1005, 1006 


249 


1007 


249 


1008 


249 


1009 


249 


1010 


250, 251 


1011 to 1015 


251 


1016 


251 


1017 


252 


1018 


252, 253 


1019 to 1023 


253 


1024 to 1030 



254 



To be. 



7031 



1032 
1073 



CONTENTS. XXI 

Page. Section. 

Remark on the Verb courir, . . . 270 1034 

Neuter "Verbs Conjugated with to have or to be, ac- 
cording to their Signification, . . 271 1035 

Verbs, whose Signification is entirely Different 
when Conjugated with to have or to be, . 272 to 278 1036 to 1048 

Agreement of the Verb with its Subject, 278, 279 1049 to 1051 

Place of the Subject, . . . . 279 to 282 1052 to 1061 

Number and Person of the Verb in regard to its 

Nominative, . . . . 282 to 285 1062 to 1071 

Number of the Verb when its Nominative is a 

Collective Noun, . . . . 285 to 287 1072 to 1077 

Of the Regimen or Object of Verbs, 287 to 289 1078 to 1093 

Of the Verb as a Regimen or Object, . 289, 290 1094 to 1097 

A List of Verbs governing, without a Preposi- 
tion, the Infinitive which follows them, . 290 1098 

A List of V'erbs governing the Preposition de, of, 
before the Infinitive which follows them, 
" " " " the Preposition a, to, 

Of the Noun as Regimen or Object of a Verb, 

A Verb has but one Direct Object, 

A Verb cannot have two Indirect Objects gov- 
erned by the same Preposition, 

A Verb should not be followed by an Object dif- 
ferent from that which it requires, 

A Noun cannot be governed by two Verbs unless 
both act upon it in the same Relation, 

Place of the Object of a Verb, 

Active Verbs are sometimes used without a Di- 
rect Object ..... 

Prepositions governed by Passive Verbs, . 

Of Pronouns used as Objects of the Verbs 

Of tfie Use of Moods and Tenses, 301 1119 

Cases in which the Subjunctive Mood is em- 
ployed, . . . . .3 

What are the Tenses of the Subjunctive Mood 
or those of the Conditional corresponding to 
those of the Indicative, 

Relations existing between the Tenses of the 
Indicative Mood, .... 

Case when that which is spoken of is true at all 
times, ...... 

When must the Imperfect or Pluperfect be used 
with the Conjunction si, if. 





291 


1099 




293 


1100 




294 


1101 


294, 


295 


1102,1103 


295 ; 


,286 


1104,1105 




296 


1106 




297 


1107 to 1109 


298 


,299 


1110 to 1114 




299 


1115 




299 


1115,1116 




300 


1118 



303 


1120 to 1131 


304 


1132 


304 


1133 


305 


1134 


305 


1135 



XX11 CONTENTS 1 . 

Page. Section. 

Of the Relation between the Tenses of the Sub- 
junctive Mood and those of the Indicative and 

Conditional Moods, . . . 306 to 308 1136 to 1140 

A Table, showing the Correspondence between 

Moods and Tenses, . . .309 to 314 1141 to 1170 

Examples illustrating the preceding Rules, 314 to 324 1171 to 1238 

Observations on the Subjunctive Mood, . 324 1239 

Examples in which the Indicative and Subjunc- 
tive Moods are alternately used with the same 

arrangement of words, . . . 325 to 329 1240 to 1243 

Further Remarks on the use of the Subjunctive, 329, 330 1244 to 1247 
Remarks on the Verbs ilparait, il sernble, . 330, 331 1248 to 1252 

" " croire, dire, supposer, sHma- 

giner, . . 331,332 1253,1254 

Conclusion from the preceding Rules, . 332 to 334 1255 to 1257 

Observations : 
Subjunctive is used with quoique, Men que, 

quoi . . . que, quelque que, quel que, . . 335 1258 

Que used for afin que, . . . 335 1259, 1260 

Cases when the Subjunctive is used after any of the 

Pronouns qui, que, dont, duquel, auquel&n&oii, 335, 336 1261 to 1263 
Remarks on the Subjunctive Mood, . . 337, 338 1264 to 1267 

Doubter and se doubter with the Subjunctive Mood, 339 1268 

Of the Use of the Tenses in the Subjunctive 
Mood : 

Present, .... 340, 341 1269 to 1275 

Preterite, . . . 341 to 343 1276 to 1288 

Imperfect, ... 343 to 346 1289 to 1305 

Pluperfect, . . . 346, 347 1306 to 1309 

Of the Infinitive Mood, .... 348, 349 1310 to 1315 

Of the Present Participle, . . . 349 to 352 1316 to 1322 

Present Participles never used as Adjectives, . 353 1323 

" having for their corresponding 

Adjectives words sounding alike, but whose 

Orthography is different, . . 353 1324, 1325 

How to distinguish when a word ending in ant 

is a Present Participle or an Adjective, 
Of the Past Participle : 

Used without an Auxiliary Verb, 
Used with the Verb to be, . 
" " to have, . 

•" Reflective Verbs, 
Remarks and Illustrations of the Rules in re- 
gard to the Past Participle, 

Except^, vu, attendu, y compris, suppose, 



353, 354 


1326 to 1329 


354 


1330 


354, 355 


1331,1332 


355, 356 


1333 to 1337 


356 to 358 


1338 to 1345 


358 




358 


1346 



CONTENTS. 



XXlll 



Page. 



Past Participles of Verbs which are Active or 
Neuter, according to their Signification, 

Followed by an Adjective or another 

Past Participle, 
Followed by the Nominative of a Verb, 
Followed by an Infinitive, which is it- 
self preceded by a Preposition, 
Followed by an Infinitive without a 
Preposition, . . . I 

Of the Verb /aire followed by an Infini- 
tive, . 
Preceded and followed by que, 
Preceded by lui or leur, used instead of 
le, la, les, .... 
Preceded by le representing a Member 

of a Sentence, 
Preceded by the Pronoun en, 
Preceded by an Adverb of Quantity, 
Used with Impersonal Verbs, . 
Preceded by several Nouns, and agree- 
ing only with one, 
With the Adverb le pen . 
CoHt6 and valu, 
Remarks on some Reflective Verbs whose Sig- 
nification does not suffer the Analysis in the 
ordinary manner ; as, se doubter, s'appercevoir, 
sattaquer, s'emparer, s'abstenir, s'ichapper, 



360 



Section. 



1347 



361 


1348 


362 


1349 


362 


1350 


365 


1351 to 1354 


366 


1355 


367 


1356 



367 



1357 



368 


1358 


369 to 372 


1359 to 1368 


371, 373 


1369 to 1372 


374 


1373 


375 


1374 to 1376 


377, 378 


1377, 1378 


377 


1379 



378 



1380 



Of Prepositions. 

Definition and Classification, 
A List of Prepositions according to their Regimen, 
Governing their Regimen without the 
help of another, 

With de, of, 
With o, to, . 
Of Prepositions Considered in Regard to their 
Signification, . 

Denoting Place, . 
Order, 
Union, . 
Separation, . 
Opposition, 
The End, . 
Cause and Means, 
A, de, en, 
Difference between en and dans, 



380 



380 to 382 


1381 


to 1391 


i, 382 




1392 


382 




1393 


383 




1394 


383 




J 395 


384 




1396 


384 




1397 


385 




1398 


385 




1399 


386 




1400 


386 




1401 


386 




1402 


387 




1403 


387 to 389 


1404 to 1407 


389, 390 


1408 to 1410 



XXIV 



CONTENTS. 



En joined to a Verb and changing its Significa- 
tion, ..... 390, 
Difference between the same words being Ad- 
verbs or Prepositions .... 
Difference between prhs and prit, 

" " au tr avers and a tr avers, 

Prepositions governing other Prepositions with 
the aid of on Ellipsis, .... 
De, . . • . 

Excepti and hors, 

Pour, .... 

Jusque, ..... 
Par, ..... 
Of the Prepositions void, voila, . . 

" " pendant and durant 

" " devant and avant, 

A Noun maybe governed by two Prepositions, pro- 
vided they have the same regimen, 

Of the Use of the Article with Prepositions. 
A List of Prepositions requiring the use of the 

Article before their regimen, 
Exceptions, ..... 

Preposition en with and without the Article, 
Prepositions which sometimes take the Article, 

sometimes not, ..... 

Of the Repetition of Prepositions. 
Of the Place of Prepositions. 
Of the Preposition de, of. 
Infraction de, .... 

Nouns preceded by an Adjective and used in a 

partitive sense, ..... 
Indefinite Pronouns, guelque chose, quoi quece soit, 

rien, &c. with the Preposition de, of, 
Cardinal Numbers preceded by en and followed 

by de before an Adjective, 
De used instead of parmi, 

" " avant, .... 

" " depuis, 

Familiar expressions with de, 
De with plus and moins used instead of que, 
De used after plutdt que, 
De used with valoir mieux, 
De " " avant que, .... 
De " V* de crainte and de peur, 



Page. Section. 


391 


1411 to 1416 


391 


1417 to 1423 


392 


1424 


393 


1425 


393 


1426 


393 


1427 


393 


1428 


393 


1429 


343 


1430 


394 


1431 


394 


1432 


394 


1433 


395 


1434 



395 1435, 1436 



395 

396 
396 
396 

397 



400 



400 



1437 

1438 
1439 
1440 

1441 



397 1442 to 1444 

398 1445 to 1448 

399 1449 
399 1450 



1451 



1452 



400 


1453 


401 


1454 


401 


1455 


401 


1456 


401 


1457 


402 


1458 


403 


1459 


403 


1460 


403 


1461 


404 


1462 



CONTENTS. 




XXV 




Page. 


Section. 


De used expletively, .... 


404 


1463 


Difference between ne f aire que and nefaire que de, 


405 


1464 


Be with rendre justice, avoir tort, avoir raison, &c. 


405 


1465 


Idiomatical expressions in which de should not be 






used, * 


. 406 


1466 


Exceptions, ..... 


406 


1467 


De preceded by lequel des deux, 


. 407 


1468 


An Infinitive, being the Nominative of a sentence, 






should not be preceded by de, 


408 


1469 


Prendre une allee de traverse, 


. 409 


1470 


Manquer d'un peu de jugement, 


409 


1471 


Susceptible de, 


. 410 


1472 


Of the Preposition a, to, ... 


410 


1473 


Nepour, .... 


. 410 


1474 


Trrite contre, .... 


410 


1475 


Hardi a, temeraire de, ingenieux &, 


. 411 


1476 


Allier a, 


411 


1477 


Avoir affaire a, avoir affaire de, 


. 411 


1478 


Avoir du plaisir a, 


411 


1479 


Avoir egard a, avoir des egards pour, 


. 412 


1480 


Manquer d'egards, . . ; 


412 


1481 


Changer, meaning to barter, 


• 412 


1482 


Echanger, troquer, 


412 


1483 


Changer, meaning to transform, . 


. 412 


1484 


Commuer, to commute, 


413 


1485 


Changer, meaning to leave one thing for 






another, 


. 413 


1486 


Comparer a, and not avec, 


413 


1487 


Par comparaison a, 


. 413 


1488 


Condamner a, and not en, 


414 


1489 


Confier a, ... 


. 414 


1490 


Se confier, mettre saconfiance, prendre 






confiance en, 


414 


1491 


Se cramponner a, and not sur, 


. 414 


1492 


Grimper sur, .... 


415 


1493 


Deliberer sur, 


. 415 


1494 


Distinguer de, . 


415 


1495 


Embarrasser de, pour, 


. 416 


1496 


Se familiariser avec, % , 


417 


1497 


Etre familier avec, 


. 417 


1498 


Se fier a, to give faith, 


417 


1499 


Se fier sur, to depend upon, 


. 417 


1500 


Lier a, to tie, .... 


418 


1501 


Lier avec, to acquaint with, 


. 418 


1502 


Marier, joindre, unir a, 


418 


1503 


Meier, a, avec. 


. 418 


1504 



XXVI 



CONTENTS. 








Page. 


Section. 


Mettre apres,for mettre d, 


419 


1505 


Occuper d, de, to occupy, to think of, * 


. 419 


1506, 1507 


Amuser, d, de, 


420 


1508 


Participera, 


. 420 


1509 


" de, 


420 


1510 


Se plaire d, dans, en, 


. 420 


1511 


Prendre a temoin, 


420 


1512 


" pour " 


. 421 


1513 


Se ranger de, 


421 


1514 


« a, 


. 421 


1515 


Retrancher de, 


422 


1516 


" a 

u, . 


. 422 


1517 


Reunir a, . 


422 


1518 


Rever d, . . . 


. 422 


1519 


" de, 


423 


1520 


Rever, without a Preposition, 


. 423 


1521 


Saigner du nez, 


423 


1522 


Songer and penser, 


. 424 


1523 


Soupirer, 


424 


1524 to 1526 


Soustraire d, 


. 425 


1527 


" de, 


425 


1528 


Survivre «, ... 


. 425 


1529 


Tomber a terre, par terre, 


425 


1530 


Aimer mieux, 


. 426 


1531 to 1533 


Suppression of the Verb before de fo 


1- 




lowed by an Infinitive in Poetry 


or 




in animated style, 


426 


1534 


Difference between hors and hors de 


. 427 


1535 


Au cas, en cas, 


427 


1536 to 1538 


A defaut, au defaut, 


. 428 


1539 to 1541 


Avoir rapport d, avec, 


428 


1542 to 1544 


Au travers de, a travers, . 


. 429 


1545 to 1547 


Pres and aupres, 


. 429,430 


1548 to 1550 


Vis-a-vis for envers, a Vigard de, ave 


c, 430 


1551 


Vers instead of envers, 


. 430 


1552 


Par mi, 


430 


1553 


Entre, au mileau, 


. 431 


1554 


Sept d huit, 


431 


1555 


Durant, 


. 432 


1556 


Avoir vu sur le journal, 


432 


1557 


Void, voila, .... 


. 432 


1558 


Avant, devant, 


. 433,434 


1559 to 1565 


Avant, used as an Adverb, . 


. 434 


1566 


Tout d coup, tout d^un coup, 


435 


1567 to 1569 


Aupres de, au prix de, 


. 435 


1570 


En, dans, 


435 


1571 






Page. 


Section. 


436 


1572 


437 


1573 


437 


1574 


437 


1575 


438 


1576 


438 


1577 


438 


1578 


438 


1579 



CONTENTS. XXV11 

En, with a Noun qualified by an Adjective, 

En before lequel, .... 

En before the Plural Article, . 

En with Singular " 

Au used instead of en, dans, . 

En, dans, applied to time, 

En compared with a, and dans, 

A used for en or dans, 

En, dans, h, used with the words ville 

and campagne, . . . .637 1580, 1581 

A used for en and dans before names of 

cities, .... 

Pour instead of a, 
En used idiomatically with some Verbs 

and changing their meaning, 
Eu used expletively, 
Enuser, and not en agir, bien ou mal, 
Dans improperly used for pour, 
A tout autre que vous, and not a tout 

autre qu'a vous, . . . 441 1588 

When must a Noun, preceded by de, be 

used in the Singular or in the Plural ? 442 1589 

An Infinitive, preceded by a, represents 

a passive idea, .... 443 1590 

Faire, followed by an Infinitive, cannot 

be preceded by d,, 
Jouer a, 
Jouer de, 

De used adverbially, 
A before Nouns to express the use of a 

preceding Noun, . . . 445 1595 

A used to denote the period of time or 

action, . . . .445 1596 

A used to denote circumstances of events 

or actions, . . . 445 1597 

A used to denote possession, office, duty, 445 1598 

Remark on the employment of a and de, 

meaning turn, or right, or duty, . 446 1599 



440 


1582 


440 


1583 


440 


1584 


440 


1585 


441 


1586 


441 


1587 



444 


1591 


444 


1592 


444 


1593 


444 


1594 



Of Adverbs. 






Definition, ..... 


446 to 449 


1600 to 1608 


Of the different sorts of Adverbs, 


449 


1609, 1610 


First Class, .... 


449, 450 


1611 to 1613 


Second " 


450 


1614 


Formation of Adverbs ending in ment, 


450, 451 


1615 to 1619 



XXV111 CONTENTS. 

Adverbs of manner not ending in ment, 

Remarks on Adverbs ending in ment, 

Third Class, ..... 

Adverbs of quantity, 

A list of all the Adverbs classified according to 

their signification, .... 
Of the place of the Adverb, 
Of the negative Adverb ne, 
What is the place of the negative words ? . 
When is it that pas should be preferred to point ? 

" " pas or point should be suppressed ? 

Of Conjunctions. 



Page. Section. 



451 


1620 


452 


1621 to 1626 


453 


1627 to 1635 


454 


1636 to 1642 


457 


1643 to 1654 


465 


1655 to 1663 


467 


1664, 1665 


468 


1666 to 1668 


469 


1669 to 1673 


471 


1674 to 1699 


478 


1700 to 1706 


480 


1707 to 1724 


489 


1725 to 1748 


494 


1749 


494 


1750 to 1756 


497 


1757 to 1761 



Definition, ..... 

Classification, .... 

Mode of using the Conjunction que, 
Of the regimen of Conjunctions, 
Conjunctions governing the Infinitive Mood, 

" " the Indicative Mood, 

" " the Subjunctive Mood, 499 1762, 1763 

Of Interjections. 500 1764 to 1778 

Grammatical Construction. 

Definition, ..... 503 1779 

Construction of Affirmative Sentences, . . 503 1780 to 1788 

Interrogative " . . 506 1789 to 1795 

" Imperative " . . 509 1796 

Of Inversion. 

Definition, 510 1797 

Different kinds of Inversion, . . .511 1798 to 1802 

Of the Ellipsis. 

Definition, 513 1803 

Different kinds of Ellipsis, . . .513 1804 to 1806 

Of Pleonasm. 

Definition, ..... 515 1807 

Different kinds of Pleonasms, . . . 515 1808 to 1811 

Of Syllepsis. 
Definition, 517 1812 



CONTENTS. XXIX 

Page. Section. 

Of Grammatical Discordances. 

Of Discordances . . . . .518 1814, 1815 

Of Amphibologies, . . . . 520 1816 to 1820 

Of Gallicisms. 
Different kinds of Gallicisms, . . .521 1821 to 1827 

Conjugation of Verbs. 

Avoir, to have, . . . . 524 1828 

Y avoir, there to be, . . . . 528 1829 

Etre, to be, . . . . . 530 1830 

Aimer, to love, . . . . .434 1831 

Remarks on the first Conjugation, . . 539 1832 
Conjugation of the Verbs ending in eter, eler, 

ger, e'er, cer, yer, ier, .... 540 1832 to 1843 

Finir, to finish, .... 549 1845 to 1863 

Recevoir, to receive, .... 558 1864 

Remarks on the Verbs of the Third Conjugation, 563 1865 to 1867 

Rendre, to render, .... 564 1868 

Remarks on the Verbs of the Fourth Conjugation, 568 1869 to 1871 

Conjugation of the Passive Verbs, . . 570 

Eire aimi, to be loved, .... 570 1872 

Of Pronominal Verbs, .... 575 1873 

Of Reflective Verbs, ... 576 1874, 1875 

Of Reciprocal Verbs, .... 577 1876 
A List of Verbs which are Reflective in French, 

although they do not take this form in English, 578 1877 

Conjugation of Reflective Verbs, . . 579 

Maimer, to love one's self, . 579 1878 

Of the Formation of the Tenses, . 584 to 588 1879 to 1889 
A Table, showing the Terminations of all the 

Tenses and Persons in the Verbs of the Four 

Conjugations, ..... 589 1890 

Conjugation of the Irregular Verbs, . 591 

Alphabetical List of oil the Irregular Verbs of the Four Conjugations. 

A. 

Abattre, to pull down, to throw down, to feel, 

S'Abattre, £, to fall down, . 

Aborder, a, i, to land, (see page 653,) 

Absoudre, to absolve, 

S'abstenir, e, to abstain, to refrain, 

Abstraire, to abstract, 





Page. 


like Battre, 


627 


CC 


627 


Aimer, 


534 


Resoudre, 


647 


Tenir, 


612 


Traire, 


65Z 



XXX 



CONTENTS, 



Accoucher, a, e, to bring forth, (see page 613,) 

Accourir, a, £, to run to, to hasten to, 

Accroire, to make one believe, . 

Accroitre, a, e, to increase, to accrue, to augment 

S' Accroitre, S, " " " 

Accueillir, to welcome, .... 

Acheter, to buy, (see page 547, sect. 1840,) 

Achever, to achieve, to finish, (see page 547, sect 

1841,) . . 

Acqudrir, to acquire, .... 

Adjoindre, to associate, to adjoin, . 

Admettre, to admit, .... 

Alidner, to alienate, (see page 548, sect. 1841,) 

AlUguer, to allege, " " " 1842,) 

Alter ■, £, to go, .... 

S'en Alter, e, to go away, 

Amener, to bring, (see page 548, sect. 1841,) 

Amonceler, to heap, ( " " " 1842,) . 

Apparaitre, a, e, to appear, 

Appartenir, to belong, . 

Appeler, to call, (see page 540,) . 

Apprendre, to learn, 

Appuyer, to support, 

Arriver, S, to arrive, (see page 654,) 

Assaillir, to assault, 

Asseoir, ) . , 

M . . * /'to sit down, 

S' Asseoir, e, > 

Assoir, > ., , 

M , . . > to sit down, . 

S' Assoir, t, > 

Astreindre, to subject, . 

S'Astreindre, 6, to confine one's self, 

Atteindre, to overtake, to reach, 

Atteler, to put to, (see page 540,) 

Attraire, to allure, to entice, 

Avancer, to advance, (see page 541,) 

Aveindre, to take out, to fetch out, 

Avenir, i, to happen, to chance, 

Avoir, to have, . 

Y Avoir, there to be, 

B. 

Battre, to beat, to strike, 

Se Battre, i, to fight, 

Blasphemer, to blaspheme, (see page 548, sect 

1841,) . 
Boire, to drink, 





Page. 


Aimer, 


534 


Courir, 


603 


Croire, 


632 


;, Croitre, 


633 


(< 


633 


Cueillir, 


604 


Aimer, 


534 


a 


534 


Acquerir, 


600 


Joindre, 


638 


Mettre, 


640 


Aimer, 


534 


c< 


534 


Aller, 


592 


S'enAller, 


593 


Aimer, 


534 


u 


534 


Paraitre, 


643 


Tenir, 


612 


Appeler, 


540 


Prendre, 


645 


Employer, 


541 


Aimer, 


534 


Assaillir 


601 


S' Asseoir, 


616 


Assoir, 


617 


Joindre, 


638 


u 


638 


(1 


638 


Appeler, 


540 


Traire, 


651 


Percer, 


541 


Joindre, 


638 


Tenir, 


612 


Avoir, 


524 


Y Avoir, 


528 


Battre, 


627 


ti 


627 


Aimer, 


534 


Boire, 


628 



CONTENTS. 




XXXI 

Page. 


Bouillir, to boil, ..... 


Bouillir, 


602 


Bourreler, to torment, (see page 549, sect. 1843,) 


Aimer, 


534 


Brake, to bray, ..... 


Traire, 


651 


Bruiner, to drizzle, .... 


Neiger, 


599 


Bruire, to roar, ..... 


Reduire, 


646 


C. 

Cacheter, to seal, (see page 547, sect. 1840,) 


Aimer, 


534 


Ceindre, to gird, ..... 


Joindre, 


638 


Ctler, to conceal, (see page 548, sect. 1842,) 


Aimer, 


534 


CXUbrer, to celebrate ( " " ) 


«< 


534 


Cesser, «, i, to cease, (see page 653,) 


tt 


534 


Chanceler, to stagger, ( " 548, sect. 1843,) 


<< 


534 


Changer, a, S, to changer, (see pages 540 and 653,) 


Venger, 


540 


Choir, e, to fall, (see page 653,) . 


Dechoir, 


618 


Circonscrire, to circumscribe, . 


Ecrire, 


635 


Circonvenir, to circumvent, 


Tenir, 


612 


Clore, to shut, to close, 


Clore, 


629 


Colleter, to collar, (see page 547, sect. 1840,) 


Aimer, 


534 


Combattre, to fight, .... 


Battre, 


627 


Commettre, to commit, .... 


Mettre, 


640 


Comparaitre, to appear, .... 


Parahre, 


643 


Complaindre, to complain to, . 


Joindre, 


638 


Complaire, to comply, .... 


Plaire, 


644 


Se Complaire, £, to delight, 


u 


644 


Comprendre, to understand, 


Prendre, 


645 


Compromettre, to compromise, . 


Mettre, 


640 


Se Compromettre, £, to expose one's self, . 


" 


640 


Conclure, to conclude, .... 


Conclure, 


630 


Concourir, to concur, .... 


Courir, 


603 


Conduire, to conduct, .... 


Reduire, 


646 


Confire, to preserve, .... 


Confire, 


630 


Congeler, to congeal, (see page 548, sect. 1843,) 


Aimer, 


534 


Conjoindre. to conjoin, .... 


Joindre, 


638 


ConnaUre, to know, . • . . 


Paraitre, 


643 


Conqu^rir, to conquer, .... 


Acquerir, 


600 


Consentir, to consent, .... 


Sentir, 


610 


Construire, to construct, to build, . 


Reduire, 


646 


Contenir, to contain, .... 


Tenir, 


612 


Se Contenir, £, to refrain, .... 


t< 


612 


Contraindre, to constrain, . . : 


Joindre, 


638 


Contredire, (see sect. 1935,) 


Dire, 


634 


Contrefaire, to counterfeit, 


Faire, 


636 


Contrevenir, to infringe, .... 


Tenir, 


612 


Convaincre, to convince, 


Vaincre, 


652 


Convenir, a, i, to suit, to fit, (see page 653,) 


Tenir, 


612 



XXXII 



CONTENTS. 



Page. 

Coqueter, to coquet, (see page 547, sect. 1840,) Aimer, 534 

Corrompre, to corrupt, .... Rompre, 649 

Coudre, to sew, .... Coudre, 631 

Courir, to run, ..... Courir, 603 

Couvrir, to cover, .... Ouvrir, 609 

Craindre, to fear, ..... Joindre, 638 

Croire, to believe, .... Croire, 632 

Se Croire, £, to rely upon one's own judgment, . " 632 

Croitre, a, S, to grow, (see page 653,) . . Croitre, 633 

Cueillir, to gather, . . . . Cueillir, 604 

Quire, to cook, to bake, .... Reduire, 646 



Debattre, to debate, .... 
Se Debattre, e, to struggle, . . . 

Decacheter, to unseal, (see page 547, sect. 1840,) 
Ddcampcr, a, g, to decamp, (see page 653,) 
Bleeder, S, to die, (see page 548, sect. 1842,) 
Diceler, to betray, to detect, (see page 548, sect 

1843,) 

Dechoir, a, i, to decay, 



Ddcolleter, to uncover the neck, (see page 
sect. 1840,) .... 

Diconfire, to defeat totally, 

Ddconstruire, to take to pieces, 

Decoudre, to rip, 

Ddcouvrir, to discover, 

Decrire, to describe, 

Ddcroitre, a, S, to decrease, (see page 653,) 

Dedire, to disown, (see sect. 1964,) 

Se Dddire, e, to retract, ( " ) 

Deduire, to deduct, 

Defaillir, to fail, to faint, . 

D&faire, to undo, to defeat, 

Se Defaire, e, to part with, to get rid of, . 

Degeler, to thaw, (see page 548, sect. 1843,) 

Dtjoindre, to disjoin, 

Dimentir, to contradict, to belie, . 

Se Dementir, e, to belie one's self, 

Dimettre, e, to disjoint, 

Se Ddmettre, £ , to resign , 

Demeurer, a, £, to dwell, to live, to remain, 
page 653,) .... 

Ddpartir, to distribute, to share, 

Se Ddpartir, 6, to depart, (see page 653,) . 

Depecer, to carve, (see page 548, sect. 1841,) 



547 



Battre, 

u 

Aimer, 

a 
(« 

(« 

Dechoir, 

Aimer, 

Confire, 

Reduire, 

Coudre, 

Ouvrir, 

Ecrire, 

Croitre, 

Dire, 

Reduire, 

Faillir, 

Faire, 

a 

Aimer, 

Joindre, 

Sentir, 

(C 

Mettre, 



Aimer, 

Sentir, 

d 

Aimer, 



627 
627 
534 
534 
534 

534 
618 

534 
630 
646 
631 
609 
635 
633 
634 
634 
646 
606 
636 
636 
534 
638 
610 
610 
640 
640 

534 
610 
610 
534 



CONTENTS. 



XXX11I 



Dttruire, to destroy, 

Se Detruire, e, to kill one's self, 



Dipeindre, to describe, 

Ddplaire, to displease, .... 
Se Dtylaire, i, to be displeased with, 
Ddpourvoir, to deprive, 
De"sapprendre, to unlearn, . 
Descendre, a, t, to descend, (see page 653,) 
Desservir, to clear a table, to do an ill-office, 
Deteindre, to discolor, 

Diteler, to unlearn, (see page 548, sect. 1843,) 
Ddtenir, to detain, .... 
trui, 

mt 

Devenir, e, to become, . 

D6vetir, e, to strip, to undress, 

Se Devitir, t, to leave off part of one's clothes, 

Dire, to say, to tell, 

Disconvenir, &, to deny, (see page 653,) , . 

Discourir, to discourse, 

Disjoindre, to disjoin, .... 

Disparaitre, a, e, to disappear, (see page 653,) 

Dissoudre, to dissolve, 

Se Dissoudre, 6, to dissolve, to be dissolved, . 

Distraire, to distract, to divert, 

Dormir, to sleep, .... 

E. 

S'Ebattre, e, to take one's pleasure, 

Echapper, a, 6, to escape, (see page 653,) 

Echoir, i, to happen, to chance, to fall to, to injure 

Eclairer, to lighten, . 

Echouer, a, i, to run aground, to miscarry, (see 

page 653,) 
Eclore, e, to come to life, to hatch, to blossom, (see 

page 653,) .... 

Econduire, to refuse, to discard in a polite manner 
Ecrire, to write, .... 

Elire, to elect, to choose, . 
Embellir, a,i, to embellish, (see page 653,) 
Emetlre, to express, to set forth, 
Emmener, to take away, (see page 548, sect. 1842, 
Emoudre, to sharpen, 
Emouvoir, to move, . 
S'Emouvoir, i, to be moved, 
Empirer, a, i, to grow worse, to make worse, (see 

page 653,) 
Employer, to employ, (see page 540,) 





Page. 


Joindre, 


638 


Plaire, 


644 


it 


644 


Pourvoir, 


622 


Prendre, 


645 


Vendre, 


564 


Servir, 


611 


Joindre, 


638 


Aimer, 


534 


Tenir, 


612 


Reduire, 


646 


a 


646 


Tenir, 


612 


Vetir, 


614 


it 


614 


Dire, 


634 


Tenir, 


612 


Courir, 


603 


Joindre, 


638 


Paraitre, 


643 


Resoudre, 


647 


a 


647 


Traire, 


651 


Dormir, 


605 


Battre, 


627 


Aimer, 


534 


Dechoir, 


618 


Neiger, 


599 



Aimer, 



534 



Clore, 


629 


Reduire, 


646 


Ecrire, 


635 


Lire, 


639 


Finir, 


549 


Mettre, 


640 


Aimer, 


534 


Moudre, 


641 


Mouvoir, 


620 


(C 


620 


Aimer, 


534 


Employer, 


541 



XXXIV 



CONTENTS 



Empreindre, to imprint, 

Enceindre, to enclose, . 

Enclore, to surround, 

Encourir, to incur, 

Endormir, to cause to sleep 

S'Endormir, S, to fall asleep, 

Enduire, to plaster, 

Enfreindre, to transgress, 

S'Enfuir, to run away, 

Enjoindre, to enjoin, 

S'enqudrir, to inquire, 

S'Entremettre, to interpose, 

Entrer, a, e, to enter, (see page 653,) 

Entreprendre, to undertake, 

Entretenir, to entertain, 

S'Entrelenir, 6, to discourse with, . 

Entrevoir, to glimpse at, 

S'Entrevoir, &, to see each other, . 

Entrouvrir, to open a little, 

Envoy er, to send, . 

S'Eprendre, i, to be smitten, 

Equivaloir, to be equivalent, 

Espdrer, to hope, 

Essay er, to try, 

Eteindre, to extinguish, 

Etinceler, to sparkle, 

Etiqueter, to label 

.E^re, to be, . . 

Eteindre, to bend close, 

Exclure, to include, 

Expirer, a, e, to expire, (see page 653,) 

Extraire, to extract, 



Faillir, to fail, . 

Faire, to do, to make, 

Falloir, to be necessary (must) , 

Feindre, to feign, 

Ficeler, to tie with pack-thread, (see page 548, sect 

1843,) . 
Fleurir, to blossom, to flourish, 
Forclore, to debar, . 
Forfaire, to trespass, 
JVire, to fry, 
jPttir, to run away, to fly, 



Joindre, 


Page. 
638 


t( 


638 


Clore, 


629 


Courir, 


603 


Dormir, 


605 


(< 


605 


Reduire, 


646 


Joindre, 


638 


Fuir, 


607 


Joindre, 


638 


Acquerir, 
Mettre, 


600 
# 640 


Aimer, 


534 


Prendre, 


645 


Tenir, 


612 


« 


612 


Voir. 


626 


(c 


626 


Otivrir, 


609 


Employer, 
Prendre, 


541 
645 


Valoir, 


625 


Aimer, 


534 


Employer, 
Joindre, 


541 

638 


Aimer, 


534 


u 


534 


Etre, 


530 


Joindre, 


638 


Conclure, 


630 


Aimer, 


534 


Traire, 


651 


Faillir, 


606 


Faire, 


636 


Falloir, 


619 


Joindre, 


638 


Aimer, 


534 


Fleurir, 


607 


Clore, 


629 


Faire, 


636 


Frire, 


637 


Fuir, 


607 



CONTENTS. 



XXXV 



G. 

Geindre, to whine, to moan, 

Geler, to freeze, (see page 548, sect. 1843,) 

Gesir, to lie, 

Grasseyer, to lisp, (see page 540,) 

Greler, to hail, . 

Gresiller, to rime, .... 

H. 

Hair, to hate, . 

Harceler, to torment, (see page 548, sect. 1843,) 
Hypothtquer, to mortgage, (see page 548, sect. 
1842,) 

I. 

Importer, to matter, to import, . 

Induire, to induce, . 

Inquirer, to make uneasy (see page 548, section, 

1842,) 

Inscrire, to inscribe, .... 
S' Inscrire, i, to enter one's name on a register, . 
Instruire, to instruct, .... 
Interdire, to interdict, . . . . 

Interrompre, to interrupt, (see page 653,) 
Intervenir, £, to intervene, (see page 653,) 
Introduire, to introduce, • 

J. 

Jeter, to throw, to cast, (see page 540,) 
Se jeter, e, to cast one's self, (see page 540,) 
Joindre, to join, .... 

Se joindre, to unite, . 



Lecher, to lick, (see page 548, section 1842,) 
Lire, to read, ..... 
Luire, to shine, to glitter, 

M. 

Maintenir, to maintain, 

Se Maintenir, t, to keep up, 

Malfaire, to do mischief, 

Maudire, to curse, (see page 634, section 1965,) 

Meconnaitre, to disown, to forget, to neglect, &c. 

Se MiconnaUre, e, to forget one's self, 

Midire, to slander, (seepage, 636, section 1963,) 





Page. 


Joindre, 


638 


Aimer, 


534 


Gesir, 


608 


Employer, 


541 


Neiger, 


599 


u 


599 


Hair, 


608 


Aimer, 


534 



534 



Neiger, 


599 


Aimer, 


534 


Reduire, 


646 


Aimer, 


534 


Ecrire, 


635 


tt 


635 


Reduire, 


646 


Dire, 


634 


Rompre, 


649 


Tenir, 


612 


Reduire, 


646 


Jeter, 


540 


<( 


540 


Joindre, 


638 


« 


638 


Aimer, 


534 


Lire, 


639 


Reduire, 


646 


Tenir, 


612 


a 


612 


Faire, 


636 


Dire, 


634 


Paraitre, 


643 


a 


643 


Dire, 


634 



XXX VI 



CONTENTS, 



Mener, to lead, (see page 548, section 1841,) 

Mentir, to lie, to tell a lie, 

Se Me" prendre, 6, to mistake, 

Mettre, to put, to place, 

Monter, a, i, to mount, ascend, (see page 653,) 

Moudre, to grind, (grain,) 

Mourir, S, to die, 

Se Mourir, i, to be dying, 

Mouvoir, to move, .... 

Se Mouvoir, e, to move. 

N. 

Naitre, £, to be born, (see page 653,) 
Nigliger, to neglect, (see page 540,) 
Neiger, to snow, 

Niveler, to level, (see page 548, section 1843,) 
Nuire, to hurt, to do an ill office, 



Q. 



Obtenir, to obtain, 

Offrir, to offer, 

S' Offrir, i, to offer one's self, 

Oindre, to anoint, 

Omettre, to omit, 

Ouir, to hear, 

Ouvrir, to open, 



P. 



Paitre, to graze, . . . 

Parfaire, to perfect, .... 

Paraitre, to appear, .... 

Parcourir, to run over, 

Partir, a,e, to set out, (see page 653,) 

Parvenir, i, to arrive, to succeed, to reach, (see 

page 653,) ..... 
Payer, a, i, to pay, (see page 653,) 
Payer, to pay, .... 

Peindre, to paint, .... 

Peler, to peal, see page 548, section 1843,) 
Pinitrer, to penetrate, (see page 548, section 1842,) 
Perir, a, i, to perish, (see page 653,) 
Permettre, to permit, .... 

Plaindre, to pity, .... 

Se Plaindre, e, to complain, 
Plaire, to please, .... 

Pleuvoir, to rain, .... 





Page. 


Aimer, 


534 


Sentir, 


610 


Prendre, 


645 


Mettre, 


640 


Aimer, 


534 


Moudre, 


641 


Mourir, 


608 


a 


608 


Mouvoir, 


620 


<( 


620 


Naitre, 


641 


Venger, 


540 


Neiger, 


599 


Aimer, 


534 


Reduire, 


646 


Tenir, 


612 


Ouvrir, 


609 


(< 


609 


Joindre, 


538 


Mettre, 


640 


OuTr, 


609 


Ouvrir, 


609 


Paitre, 


642 


Faire, 


636 


Paraitre, 


653 


Courir, 


603 


Sentir, 


610 


Tenir, 


612 


Aimer, 


534 


Employer, 


541 


Joindre, 


638 


Aimer, 


534 


c« 


534 


Finir, 


549 


Mettre, 


640 


Joindre, 


638 


<( 


638 


Plaire, 


644 


Pleuvoir, 


621 



CONTENTS. 

Poindre, to dawn, to shoot forth, 

Possider, to possess, (see page 548, section 1842,) 

P oursuivre, to pursue, 

Pourvoir, to provide, 

Se Pourvoir, £, to provide one's self, 

Pouvoir, to be able, . . 

Prddire, to foretell, (see page 634, section 1965,) 

Prendre, to take, 

Prescrire, to prescribe, 

Se Prescrire, i, to lose by prescription, 

Pressentir, to foresee, 

Prdvaloir, to prevail, 

Se Privaloir, i, to take advantage, 

Privenir, to anticipate, to prevent, 

Prevoir, to foresee, 

Produire, to produce, 

Se Produire, S, to put one's self forward, 

Projeter, to project, 

Promettre, to promise, 

SePromeltre, e, to hope for, 

Promouvoir, to promote, 

Proscrire, to proscribe, 

Provenir, to proceed from, 



Q. 



Qutrir, to go and fetch, to send for, . 

R. 

Rabattre, to abate, to beat down, 

Se Rabattre, i, to turn about, 

Racheier, to buy again, (see page 548, section 1841,) 

Rajeunir, a, i, become young, (see page 653,) 

Rapiecer, to piece, (see page 548, section 1842,) 

Rappeler, to recall, (see page 540,) 

Rapprendre, to learn again, 

Rasseoir, to set down again, 

Se Rasseoir, e, to sit down again, 

Rebattre, to beat again, .... 

Reboire, to drink again, 

Rebouillir, to boil again, 

Recacheter, to seal again, (see page 547, section 1840,) 

Receler, to secrete, to receive stolen goods, (page 

548, section 1842,) 
Rechoir, to fall again, .... 

Reclure, to shut up, .... 
Reconduire, to conduct back again, 
d 





XXXVU 




Page. 


Poindre, 


645 


Aimer, 


534 


Suivre, 


650 


Pourvoir, 


622 


tt 


622 


Pouvoir, 


623 


Dire, 


634 


Prendre, 


645 


Ecrire, 


635 


<< 


635 


Sentir, 


610 


Valoir, 


625 


tt 


625 


Tenir, 


612 


Voir, 


626 


Reduire, 


646 


« 


646 


Jeter, 


540 


Mettre, 


640 


cc 


640 


Mouvoir, 


670 


Ecrire, 


635 


Tenir, 


612 



Acquerir, 600 



Battre, 


627 


<« 


627 


Aimer, 


534 


Finir, 


549 


Aimer, 


534 


Appeler, 


540 


Prendre, 


645 


Asseoir, 


616 


c' 


616 


Battre, 


627 


Boire, 


628 


Bouillir, 


602 


Aimer, 


534 


(< 


534 


Dechoir, 


618 


Conclure, 


530 


Reduire, 


646 



XXXV111 



CONTENTS. 



Reconnaitre, to recognize, 

Se Reconnaitre, S, to recognize one's self, 

Reconquirir, to reconquer, 

Reconstruire, to build again, 

Recoudre, to sew again, 

Recourir, to have recourse, 

Recouvrir, to cover again,. 

Ricrire, to write over again, 

Recroitre, to grow again, 

Recueillir, to gather, to reap, 

Se Recueillir, £, to recollect one's self, 

Recuire, to bake again, 

Redefaire, to undo again, 

Redescendre, a, 6, to come down again, (see page 653,) 

Redevenir, e, to become again, 

Redire, to say again, 

Redormir, to sleep again, 

Reduire, to reduce, 

Se Rdduire, i, to amount to, 

Refaire, to make again, 

Se Refaire, e, to recover, 

Refleurir, to blossom again, 

Refrire, to fry again, 

Regeler, to freeze again, (see page 549, section 1843,) 

Rigler, to regulate, (see page 548, section 1842,) 

Regner, to reign, (see page 548, section 1842,) 

Reintegrer, to reinstate, (see page 548, section 1842,) 

Rejoindre, to join again, 

Relive, to read over again, 

Reluire, to glitter, to shine, 

Remettre, to remit, to replace, 

Se Remettre, e, to recover, 

S'en Remettre, c, to refer a thing to somebody, 

Remoudre, to grind over again, 

Remonter, a, 6, to ascend again, (see page 653,) 

Renaitre, to revive, .... 

Rendormir, to fall to sleep again, 

Se Rendormir, i, to fall asleep again, . 

Renduire, to plaster anew, 

]R.enouveler , to renew, (see page 548, section 1843,) 

Rentraire, to darn, .... 

Rentrer, a, e, to reenter, (see page 653,) 

Renvoyer, to send back, .... 

Repaitre, to feed, .... 

Se Repaitre, to delight in, ... 

Reparaitre, to reappear, 



Paraitre, 

Acquerir, 

Reduire, 

Coudre, 

Courir, 

Ouvrir, 

Ecrire, 

Croitre, 

Cuiellir, 

cc 

Reduire, 

Faire, 

Rendre, 

Tenir, 

Dire, 

Dormir, 

Reduire, 

Faire, 
<< 

Fleurir, 
Frire, 
Neiger, 
Aimer, 



Joindre, 
Lire, 
Reduire, 
Mettre, 



Moudre, 
Aimer, 
Naitre, 
Dormir, 

(C 

Reduire, 

Aimer, 

Traire, 

Aimer, 

Employer, 

Pah re, 

(C 

Paraitre, 



Page. 
643 
643 
600 
646 
631 
603 
609 
635 
633 
604 
604 
646 
636 
564 
612 
634 
605 
646 
646 
636 
636 
607 
637 
599 
534 
534 
534 
638 
639 
646 
640 
640 
640 
641 
534 
641 
605 
605 
646 
534 
651 
534 
540 
642 
642 
643 



CONTENTS. 



XXXIX 



Repartir, S, to setoff again, 

Repasser, a, e, to pass again, (see page 653,) . 

Repeindre, to paint again, 

Se Repenlir, e, to repent, 

Reprendre, to retake, 

Se Reprendre, e, to correct one's self, 

Reproduire, to reproduce, 

Requerir, to request, 

Resoudre, to resolve, . 

Se Rdsoudre, e, to resolve, 

Ressentir, to resent, " . 

Se Ressentir, S, to feel still, 

Ressortir, a, e, to go out again, 

Se Ressouvenir, e, to remember, 

Rester, a, S, to remain, (see page 653,) 

Restreindre, to restrain, 

Resulter, a, e, to follow, to result, (see page 653,) 

Retenir, to retain, to detain, 

Se Retenir, e, to forbear, to stop, 

Retomber, S, to fall again, (see page, 653,) 

Retourner, e, to return, " " 

Retraire, to redeem an estate, 

Revaloir, to repay, . 

Rivder, to reveal, to disclose, (see page 548, sec 

tion 1842,) 
Revenir, e, to come back, (see page 653,) 
Revetir, to clothe, to dress, 
Se Revetir, e, to put on one's clothes, 
Revivre, to revive, 
Revoir, to see again, 
Rire, to laugh, 
jSs Rire, e, to laugh at, 
Rompre, to break, 
-Se Rompre, e, to break, 
Rouvrir, to reopen, . 

S. 

Saillir, to project, to gush out, 

Saluer, to salute, to bow, 

Satisfaire, to satisfy, 

Savoir, to know, 

Secourir, to succour, to help, 

Se Secourir, i, to help one another, 

Siduire, to seduce, 

Semer, to sow, (see page 548, section 1841,) 

Sentir, to feel, to smell, 

Seoir, to fit, to fit well, 







Page. 




Sentir, 


610 




Aimer, 


534 




Joindre, 


638 




$entir, 


610 




Prendre, 


645 




cc 


645 


. 


Reduire, 


646 




Acquerir, 


600 




Resoudre, 


647 




a 


647 


. 


Sentir, 


610 




<< 


610 


. 


« 


610 




Tenir, 


612 




Aimer, 


534 




Joindre, 


638 




Neiger, 


599 




Tenir, 


612 




cc 


612 




Aimer, 

cc 


534 

534 




Traire, 


651 




Yaloir, 


625 




Aimer, 


534 




Tenir, 


612 




Vetir, 


614 




cc 


614 




Vivre, 


652 




Voir, 


626 




Rire, 


648 




" 


648 




Rompre, 


646 




cc 


649 




Ouvrir, 


609 




Assaillir, 


601 




Prier, 


540 




Faire, 


636 




Savoir, 


623 




Courir, 


603 




cc 


603 




Reduire, 


646 




Aimer, 


534 




Sentir, 


610 




Seoir, 


624 



xl 



CONTENTS. 



Servir, to serve, to be in use, 

Se Servir, £, to make use of, 

Sortir, a, i, to go out, 

Souffrir, to suffer, 

Soumettre, to submit, 

Se Soumettre, i, to submit one's self, 

Sourire, to smile, 

Souscrire, to subscribe, 

Soustraire, to subtract, 

Se Soustraire, i, to avoid, to escape, 

Soutenir, to maintain, to support, 

Se Soutenir, £, to stand up, 

Se Souvenir, i, to remember, 

Subvenir, to assist, to relieve, 

Suffire, to be sufficient, 

Suivre, to follow, 

S'en Suivre, i, to follow from, 

Surcroitre, to grow out, 

Surfaire, to exact, to ask too much, 

Surprendre, to surprise, 

Surseoir, to supersede, to put off, 

Surveniri, to befall, to happen, (see page 653,) 

Survivre, to survive, 



T. 

Taire, to conceal, to keep secret, 
Se Taire, 6, to keep silent, 
Teindre, to die, to color, 
Tenir, to hold, 
Se Tenir, $, to stand, 
S'en Tenir, t, to abide by, 
Tomber, &, to fall, (see page 653,) 
Tonner, to thunder, 

Traduire, to translate, to bring to justice, 
Traire, to milk, 
Transcrire, to transcribe, 
Transmettre, to transmit, 
Tressaillir, to start up, 

Trompeter summon with the sound of a trum 
pet, (see page 547, section 1840,) 



V. 



Vaincre, to vanquish, to conquer, 
Valoir, to be worth, 
Valoir mieux , to be better, 
Tenir, &, to come, (see page 653,) 







Page. 


. 


Servir, 


611 




CC 


611 


. 


Sentir, 


610 




Ouvrir, 


609 


. 


Mettre, 


640 




(C 


640 


. 


Rire, 


648 




Ecrire, 


635 


. 


Traire, 


650 




(C 


650 




Tenir, 


612 




H 


612 


. 


« 


612 




St 


612 


. 


Confire, 


630 




Suivre, 


650 


. 


a 


650 




Croitre, 


633 


. 


Faire, 


636 




Prendre, 


645 


. 


Surseoir, 


624 


) 


Tenir, 


612 


• 


Vivre, 


652 




PI aire, 


644 





si 


644 




Joindre, 


638 


, 


Tenir, 


612 




<« 


612 




tt 


612 




Aimer, 


534 




Neiger, 


599 




Reduire, 


646 




Traire, 


651 




Ecrire, 


635 




Mettre, 


640 




Assaillir, 


601 


trum- 


Aimer, 


534 




Vaincre, 


652 


, 


Valoir, 


625 


• 


it 

Tenir, 


625 
612 



CONTENTS. 



Xll 



Veiir, to clothe, to dress, 

Se Vitir, £, to clothe one's self, 

Vieillir, a, S, to grow old, (see page 653,) 

Vivre, to live, . 

Voir, to see, ..... 

Se Voir, g, to visit one another, 

Vouloir, to be willing, .... 

Regimen of Adjectives. 

A list of Adjectives always followed by the Prepo- 
sition d, to, 
Adjectives followed by the Preposition de, of, 
Adjectives which change their object when employ- 
ed before a Noun or a Verb, . 





Page. 


V^tir, 


614 


(< 


614 


Finir, 


549 


Vivre, 


652 


Voir, 


626 


<c 


626 


Vouloir, 


626 



655 
658 

660 



1995 
1996 

1997 



Regimen of Verbs. 

Illustration of Verbs which govern without a Prepo- 
sition the Infinitive that follows them, • . 678 1998 

Of Verbs governing the Infinitive after them, with 

the Preposition a, to, . . . .681 1999 

Of Verbs governing the Preposition de, of, before an 
Infinitive, ..... 691 2000 

Of Verbs which change their signification in conse- 
quence of being followed by d or de before an In- 
finitive, . . ... 704 2001 

Of Verbs requiring different Prepositions before an 

Infinitive, according to euphony, . . 709 2002 

A Table of Verbs which govern Prepositions before 
Nouns used as their object, . • .711 2003 



ERRATA 



Page 11, 

18, 

20, 

21, 

24, 

40, 

46, 

55, 

55, 

55, 

57, 

74, 

74, 

79, 

92, 

103, 

117, 

150, 

168, 

211, 

212, 

214, 

228, 

236, 

271, 

281, 

281, 

292, 

306, 

306, 

322, 

344, 

346, 

419, 

470, 

471, 

472, 

491, 

501, 

512, 



679, 



line 



691, 



701, 
714, 
730, 
730, 
730, 
736, 
740, 
741, 
743, 
746, 
756, 



1, 


instead 


of Chioume, 


18, 


" 


Franch Comte, 


5, 


cc 


guaqui, 


4, 


(C 


saidron, 


H, 


cc 


strange, 


24, 


" 


h6telleries, 


12, 


" 


is, 


20, 


" 


uncertains, 


38, 


(( 


avantages, 


42, 


" 


facts, 


12, 


(( 


Rhine, 


20, 


« 


seroit, 


24, 


» 


cc 


36, 


" 


dcvroit, 


38, 


" 


Un puree 


8, 


" 


Turk, 


11, 


" 


bein 


18, 


(( 


avois, 


23, 


" 


discretion, 


17, 


" 


pourroit, 


22, 


'• 


seroit, 


34, 


« 


etoient, 


12, 


« 


j'allois, 


27, 
26, 


(( 


revindrez, 
secheresse. 


4, 


cc 


seroit, 


8, 


» 


s'ecrouleroit, 


1, 


" 


reproacher, 


32, 


c« 


soit, 


33, 


" 


savoit, 


17, 


" 


tenu a, 


28, 


» 


doubte, 


29, 


" 


falloit, 


18, 


(( 


occupees, 


19, 


(C 


appercevoit. 


10, 


(C 


medite, 


28, 


" 


11 ne fait, 


3, 


" 


sont, 


13, 


" 


voluntiers, 


6, 


<( 


( qu'avez-vous 




I repondre, 


34, 


cc 


soit, 


10, 


'« 


aveugle, 


25, 


" 


is, 


2, 


cc 


croyois, 


17, 


" 


condamnassent 


23, 


(C 


touts, 


10, 


" 


refuser, 


30, 


(( 


jeune, 


19, 


cc 


se flatterer, 


26, 


(C 


memoir, 


28, 


(< 


ceder, resout, 


23, 


" 


paraisses, 


8, 


cc 


deriver, 


9, 


(I 


derivent, 


28, 


cc 


deserpere, 


23, 


cc 


j'evaleure 


16, 


" 


regarder, 


3, 


" 


que, 


30, 


" 


pres, 


37, 


" 


avoient, 


8, 


cc 


exclus, 



Cbiourme. 

Franche Comte. 

guagui. 

laidron. 

etrange. 

hotellerie, 

est. 

incertains. 

avantages. 

faits. 

Rhin. 

serait. 

devrait. 

Une puree. 

Turc. 

bien. 

avais. 

discretion. 

pourrait. 

serait. 

etaient. 

j'allais. 

reviendrez. 

secheresse. 

serait. 

s'ecroulerait. 

reprocher. 

ait. 

savait. 

tenu. 

doute. 

fallait. 

occupes. 

appercevait. 

medise. 

Je ne fais. 

font. 

volontiers. 

qu'avez-vous a repondre 
sais. 

aveugles. 
est. 

croyais. 
condamnaient. 
toutes. 
refuser, 
jeune. 
se flatter, 
memoire. 
ceder, resout. 
paraissez. 
deriver. 
derivent. 
je desespere. 
j'evalue. 
regarder. 
qui. 
pas. 
avaient. 
exclu. 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



Grammar is the art of speaking and writing a language 
correctly. To speak a language is to convey our thoughts in 
that language by means of articulate sounds. To write a 
language is to convey our thoughts in that language by means 
of signs or characters called letters. A French Grammar, 
written for the use of foreigners, ought not only to contain the 
rules of the French language, but to compare them with those 
of the foreign language in which it is to be studied, and to show 
clearly in what they differ or agree. In French, as well as in 
other languages, the rules are the result of philosophical rea- 
soning and of usage. 

Language, however, even as spoken by the natives of the 
same country, differs in construction, idiom, and pronuncia- 
tion, owing to the fact, that some are well educated, some 
are not ; hence a great difference between the language, as 
generally spoken, and that which is classical and conforms to 
the rules ; and the student of a foreign language ought not only 
to aim at acquiring such a knowledge of it as shall enable him to 
express his ideas intelligibly, but to write and speak it correctly. 
The study of Grammar is the means by which this point is 
to be gained. 

1 . Words spoken or written are composed of syllables ; 
syllables are composed of letters. 

2. These letters, separately or grouped together, represent 
the sounds and written words of a language ; and form a col- 
lection which is called the Alphabet. 

3. The French language has no alphabet of its own ; that 
which is used comes from the Latin. 

1 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



ah 


A 


a 


bay- 


B 


b 


say 


C 


c 


day 


D 


d 


a 


E 


e 


eff 


F 


f 


jay 


G 


g 


ahsh 


H 


h 


e 


I 


i 


jee 


J 


J 


kah 


K 


k 


ell 


L 


1 


emm 


M 


m 


enn 


N 


n 











pay 


P 


P 


ku 


Q 


q 


heir 


R 


r 


ess 


S 


s 


tay 


T 


t 


no sound alike in English U 


u 


vay 


V 


V 


eeks 


X 


X 


e grec 


Y 


y 


zed 


Z 


z 



Roman Letters. Italic Letters. 
a 
b 
c 
d 
e 

/ 



h 

i 

3 

k 

I 

m 

n 

o 

P 

1 
r 

s 

t 

u 

V 
X 

y 

z 



4. Although we have attempted to give an idea of the sound 
of each letter in this alphabet, we do not pretend that this 
figurated pronunciation gives an accurate idea of those sounds. 
There is one of them which cannot possibly be expressed by 
an assemblage of English letters, because it has no correspond- 
ing sound in English ; it is the letter u ; the pupil must refer 
to his teacher to learn how to pronounce it. / and g sound as 
the letter z in azure or s in pleasure. 

5. Some grammarians have of late introduced a new method 
of sounding the consonants of the alphabet ; they may be right ; 
but, as no benefit can be derived from this novelty, a consonant 
being never used by itself, we will not mention it here, in 
order to avoid confusion in the mind of the pupil. 

6. The twenty-five letters of the French alphabet are di- 
vided into two classes ; vowels and consonants. 



ACCENTUATION. 3 

7. The vowels are five in number ; a, e, i, o, u. 

8. The letter y is sometimes a vowel, as when it sounds 
like i ; sometimes a diphthong, as when it has the sound of 
double i (ii). 

9. These vowels are sounded by a simple emission of the 
voice, forming an articulate sound by itself. 

10. The consonants are nineteen in number ; b, c, d, /, g, 
h, h k, I, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, x, z. 

1 1 . id does not belong to the French alphabet ; it is an 
English letter, introduced into the language for the spelling of 
some foreign words, and is generally sounded as the letter v.. 

ACCENTUATION. 

12. The five vowels receive modifications in their sound by 
the use of certain signs placed over them. These signs are 
called accents. 

13. We have in French three accents ; the acute, which is 
marked thus ( ' ), the grave ( N ), and the circumflex ( A ). 

14. The acute accent (') is only used with the letter e, 
and gives it the sound of the English letter a in bale, as in 
bonte, goodness. 

15. The grave accent ( ' ) is used with the letters a, e, u. 
When used with the first and the last, a, w, it shows only 
some particular use of these two letters, and does not alter 
their pronunciation ; as in the words /a, there, and ou, where. 
Without the accent, these words signify the, feminine, and or. 

16. It gives to the letter e a more open sound than the 
acute accent, as in the words progres, succes, progress, suc- 
cess, in which e sounds as ai in fair, pair, or a in mare, snare. 

17. The circumflex accent is used with the five vowels, and 
gives them a broader sound than they have naturally, without 
changing the nature of that sound. This accent has been in- 
troduced into the language to show, that, formerly, the words, 
over which it is seen, were written with an s after the vowel 
which now receives the accent, as meme for mesmes, fumes for 
fusmes,fimes for fismes, cote for coste, pate for paste. 



4 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

PRONUNCIATION. 

SIMPLE SOUNDS PRODUCED BY THE VOWELS WITH AND 
WITHOUT THE ACCENTS. 

18. Thus the sounds of the five vowels, modified or not by 
the accents, may be represented as follows : 

a sounds like a in at, rat, flat, &c. 
a " a in farm, arm, dark, &c. 

e " m in tub, rust, burn, &c. 

There is another e, mute, which has no sound at all ; it is 
found at the end of words of more than one syllable, and in the 
middle of some others. As there is no sure indication to 
guide the student in this last case, we advise him to refer to a 
teacher to know when that letter is silent or not. 
e sounds like a in bale, fate, game, tale, &c. 

a in fare, mare, or ai in fair, pair, &c. 

e in there and where, when pronounced with 

great emphasis. 
i in pin, tin, dip, kit, &c. 
ee in deer, eel, keel, deep, &c. 
o in not, crop, frog, trot, &c. 
o in no, bone, note, rope, &c. 
u or u has no corresponding sound in English. 
y sometimes sounds like i in idiom, bit, pit, big ; sometimes 
like two is (i i) ; namely, when it is placed after a vowel, as 
in the word pays ; in which one of the is belongs to the first 
syllable, the other to the second, and the word sounds as if 
it was written pai-is. 

SIMPLE SOUNDS PRODUCED BY A UNION OF VOWELS, 
AND OF VOWELS AND CONSONANTS. 

19. These sounds of the vowels are not the only ones which 
are produced by a single emission of the voice ; others result 
from the combination of two or three vowels, and others, again, 
from the union of the vowels with several consonants ; as, 

eu which sounds like u in muff, cuff, puff, &c. 

eu which has nearly the same sound, but a little longer. 



e 


u 


g 


u 


i 


u 


A 
I 


(C 





u 


6 


cc 



PRONUNCIATION. 5 

eur which has the sound of u followed by r in fur. 

ou " " oo in too, or u in bull. 

ou u " oo in fool, moon, cool, &c. 

an " " an in rang, sprang, &c. 

in " " en in length, strength, &c. 

on " " on in long, strong, &c. 

un " " wnin hung, rung, &c. 

20. These four last sounds are called nasals, because, in 
order to their production, the air, after having been thrown out 
by the lungs, passes through the nose into the mouth. In a 
subsequent work we shall give all the necessary instructions 
about the mechanism and the use of these sounds, which, 
however, require the assistance of a teacher to be fully under- 
stood. 



SOUNDS OF THE CONSONANTS. 

21. b sounds like b in butter, mob, tub. 

c before a consonant sounds like k in kitchen, key. 

c before the vowels a, o, u, sounds like k in the above 
words. 

c before the vowels e, i, y, sounds like the soft c in English, 
in romance, city, &c. 

c with a cedilla (p), before the vowels a, o, u, sounds like 
the soft c in English in the above words. 

c sometimes sounds like the hard g, as in the word second 
and all its compounds. 

ch sounds like sh in shade, fashion, &c. 

ch sounds sometimes like k in kidney, &c. 

d sounds like d in deed, dust, rod, &c. 

d, when sounded at the end of a word, with the vowel be- 
ginning the next word, has the sound of the hard t in 
tumult, task, taste, &c. 

f sounds like / in forfeit, fee, faith, &c. 

/, when sounded at the end of a word with the vowel be- 
ginning the next word, has the sound of the letter v in 
vine, vest, &c. 

1* 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

g before a consonant has the sound of the hard g in gig, 
grog, &c. 

g before the vowels a, o, u, has the sound of the hard g, as 
in the above words. 

g before the vowels e, i, is pronounced as j, and has the 
sound of s in pleasure, or z in azure. 

g, when sounded at the end of a word, with the vowel be- 
ginning the next word, has the sound of k in kitchen. 

gn has sometimes the sound of ni, as in the words union, 
onion, &c. 

22. h is either silent or aspirated. It is silent, when the 
vowel following may be joined to the consonant ending the 
preceding word ; or when, the preceding word ending with 
a vowel, the two words ought to be united in the pronun- 
ciation, as in un grand homme, a great man, le mtme 
homme, the same man. It is aspirated, when the vowel 
following the h cannot be joined with the consonant end- 
ing the preceding word ; or when, the preceding word 
ending with a vowel, the two words must be pronounced 
separately, as in un grand heros, a great hero ; le mime 
heros, the same hero. But it must be observed, that in 
both cases the letter h has no sound, and there is no 
more aspiration in one case than the other. 

23. j sounds like s in pleasure, and z in azure. 
7c sounds like k in keel, clock, &c. 

I sounds like I in labor, soul, &c. 

il or ill sounds like Hi in William, billiard, collier, &c. 

24. Sometimes il or ill has a particular sound, called liquid ; 
this sound cannot be expressed by any comparison with 
the English language, except, perhaps, with the word 
brilliant ; it must be learned from a teacher ; habit and 
practice are the only guides to teach a foreigner when 
the I is liquid or not. Some grammarians, and many 
Frenchmen, give to this liquid I the sound of y, and pro- 
nounce the following words, famille, fami-ye, soleil, sole- 
ye, but this practice ought to be avoided as vulgar. 

25. When ill or il is sounded liquid, if the letter i is pre- 
ceded by any other vowel, the i does not sound, and is 



A 



PRONUNCIATION. 7 

but a mere sign, showing that the I or 11 are liquid ; thus 
the word trava-il sounds as if there were no i, trava-l, 
giving to the I the liquid sound ; pronounce in the same 
manner, travailler, trava-ller, bouillir, bou-llir, &c. 
m sounds like m in man, mother, germ, him, &c. 

26. n at the beginning of a syllable sounds like n in the 
words nation, nature, &c. 

27. m and n preceded by the vowels a, e, i, o, u, form the 
five nasal sounds of which we have already spoken. In 
the syllables called nasal, the morn must not be sounded ; 
and if these letters are doubled, or if the nasal syllable 
is followed by a vowel, the nasality of the sound dis- 
appears ; the first vowel sounds by itself, and the m or n 
is carried with the following vowel. For instance, in the 
word raison, the last syllable, son, has the nasal sound ; 
but in the word raisoner the nasal sound does not exist in 
son, and the word is pronounced as if it was spelled 
rai-so-ner. In the word mon, the sound of on is nasal ; 
but in monotonie it is not, and the word is pronounced as 
if it was written mo-no-to-nie. In the word parfum, the 
syllable fum is nasal ; but in the word parfumer it is not, 
and the word is pronounced parfu-mer. 

28. n at the end of a word, although preceded by a vowel, 
has the sound of n in pen, pin, sun, &c, as in the words 
amen, specimen, &c, derived from the Latin. 

29. n at the end of a word and preceded by a vowel, when 
the next word begins with a vowel or an h mute, sounds 
like two n-s, if the pronunciation requires the n to be joined 
to this vowel ; there is no nasal sound in the first word, 
and the second n is prefixed to the next word, as, for 
instance, ancien ami sounds as if it were written ancien- 
nami ; bien-heureux sounds as if written bien-nheureux. 

30. However, in the four following words, bon, mon, ton, 
son, the final n is not doubled, but they sound with the 
following word beginning with a vowel or h mute, as if 
they were written without the n, this letter being prefixed 
to the next word ; thus, bon ami, mon ami, ton ami, son 
ami, sound as if spelt bo-nami, mo-nami, to-nami, so- 
nami. 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

31. In the word un, a, an, or one, the n is doubled before 
a vowel, but the masculine pronunciation is kept to that 
word ; thus, un ami, un homme, are pronounced as if 
spelt un-nami, un-nhomme, and not u-nami, u-nhomme. 

32. p sounds like p in pope, paper, &c. 

q sounds like k in kick, keel, kitchen, &c. 

qu sounds like k in the above words. 

r sounds like r in rat, room, roar, red, &c. 

33. s at the beginning of a word sounds as s in sister, silk. 

34. s at the end of a word, when not joined to the next 
word, sounds as s in the above words ; but, when carried 
with the vowel which begins the next word, it sounds like 
z in the words zeal, zone, or s in rose. 

35. s in the middle of a word, placed between a vowel and 
a consonant, sounds as s in silk, sister ; but if placed be- 
tween two vowels, it has the sound of z in zeal, zone. 

ss always sounds soft, as in sassafras, seldom, silk, &c. 

36. t sounds hard in most words, as t in time, team, top, &c. 

37. t, corresponding in the English to the sound of sh, 
sounds in the French like the soft English c in prudence, 
science, &c; as in the words pretention, admiration, 
initier, &c, which in English are sounded pretenshion, 
admirashion, inishiate, &c. 

38. th has only the sound of t hard ; thus the words an- 
atheme, theorie, &c, sound as if spelt anateme, tiorie, 
&c. 

39. /at the end of a word is generally carried with the vowel 
beginning the next word ; when it is not so carried, it 
remains generally silent. 

v sounds like v in vent, veal, vote, vulgar, &c. 

40. x has five sounds ; Tc, as in the French word excellent, 
which is pronounced as if spelt ekcellent ; k~s, as in 
axiome, which is pronounced as if spelt aksiome, with the 
soft sound of the s in sister ; g-z, as in exemple, which 
is pronounced as if spelt egzemple ; ss, as in soixante, 
which is pronounced as if spelt soissante ; z, as in sixieme, 
which is pronounced as if spelt sizieme. 

z has the sound of z in zeal, zone, and s in rose. 



PRONUNCIATION. 9 

41. w is generally sounded by the French as the letter v ; but 
in a few foreign words it keeps the sound which it has in 
English, in wine, word, Williams, &c. 

This list of sounds for the letters of the French alphabet is 
far from being complete ; we shall give all the details, which the 
subject requires, in a subsequent work, on the application of 
the rules of the language to translating and speaking. 

42. We have thus given a list of all the sounds in the 
French language which are produced by a simple emission of 
the voice, represented by a single letter, or by an assemblage 
of several vowels and consonants ; but these sounds are also 
produced by the union of other letters, and we will now give 
a complete table, showing, at once, by what combination of 
letters they are represented in different words. 



Examples of 
Simple these sounds Similar sounds in 
sounds. in French English. 



Assemblage 

of letters Examples of Signification of the 

represent- French words in preceding words in 

ing the same which these English. 





words. 




sound. 


sounds are found. 


a 


amour 


a in cat 


> ea 


femme 
il partagea 


woman 
he partook 


a 


ame 


a in farm 


las 


tired 


e 


je 


u in tub 


1 ea 


rougedtre 


reddish 








"ai 


faisons 


let us make 








ai 


je feral 


I will make 


e 


verite 


a in fame * 


eai 


je partageai 


I partook 








ee 


ann^e 


year 








_ae 


aesophage 


aesophagus 








"ai 


m'mable 


amiable 








aie 


que j 'aie 


that I may have 


e 


pere 


a in fare 


ei 


veine 


vein 








eai 
_ais 


iplaie 


wound 








j'aimeraw 


I would love 






e in there, 








e 


etre 


where, when , 
pronounced ^ 
emphatically 


ai 


aine 


eldest 


i 

A 

1 


image 
fimes 


i in image 
ee in eel 


~i 

ie 


imitation 
parto'e 


imitation 
part 





encore 


o in encore 


'au 
eo 


tfwrore 
flageolet 


aurora 
flagelet 






i 


au 


ffwtomne 


autumn 


6 


cote 


o in clover < 


eau 


manteau 


cloak 






I 


.eo 


geole 


jail 






no correspond- | 


eu 


gagewre 


wager 


u 


pur 


ing sound in \ 


eue 


eue 


had (feminine) 






English. { 


ue 


pointwe 


sharp 


u 


flute 


ee 


u 


milr 


ripe 



10 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



eu 


jeune 


u in cuff 


" 






A 

eu 


jeune 


no correspond- 
ing sound in < 


ceu 

CEU 


ceuvre 
ncewd 


work 
knot 






English. 


eue 


queue 


tail 


ou 


couleur 


oo in too 


ou 


cowleur 


color 


ou 


voute 


oo in tool $ ao{1 


aout 


August 






i 


i oue 


joue 


jaw 








"am 


ambition 


ambition 






an in hang < 


aon 


Saon 


Saon (n. of city) 


an 


anterieur 


ean 


mangeant 


eating 








em 


empirique 


empiric 








en 


encore 


encore 








"aim 


iaim 


hunger 








ain 


demmVi 


to-morrow 


in 


infamie 


en in strength < 


ein 
im 


pemdre 
impudent 


to paint 
impudent 








ym 


sympathie 


sympathy 








_y n 


syntaxe 


syntax 








' aon 


xaon [geons 


ox-fly 


on 


profond 


on in front < 


eon 


nous man- 


we eat 








om 


sombre 


sombre 


un 


commun 


un in sung. 


\ eun 
1 um 


a jewn 
emprwmt 


fasting 
loan 



43. These simple sounds are sometimes found following 
each other in words, two by two ; the sound, produced by 
this coalition, is called diphthong. In diphthongs the two 
simple sounds are heard distinctly, although produced by a 
single emission of the voice. 

44. The following table will show all the diphthongs of the 
French language, with the original sounds of which they are 
composed. 



Simple sounds, of 

Diphthongs. which the diph- Examples of the Signification of the preceding 

thongs are com- diphthongs in words in English, 

posed. French. 



ia 


i-a 


diacre 


deacon 


ia 


i-a 


galimatias 


nonsense 


iai } 




je mandiai 


I begged 


ie > 


i-e 


piud 


P il y ; 


iez J 




vous parlies 


you spoke 


iai } 




je parlais 


I spoke 


ie I 


i-e 


piece 


piece 


ie i 




imel 


honey 


io 


i-o 


Hole 


vial 


iau 


i-6 


im'awler 


to mew 


iu 


i-u 


relmre 


binding 


ieu 


i-eu 


rek'ewr 


book-binder 


ieu ) 


. A 


lieu 


place 


ieue ( 


i-eu 


lieue 


league 



PRONUNCIATION. 



11 



iou 


i-ou 


chioume 


the crew of a galley- 


ian > 
ien 5 


i-an 


-pliant 


bending 


patience 
bien 


patience 


ien 


i-in 


well 


ion 


i-on 


consolation 


consolation 


oi 


o-a 


boire 


to drink 


°' 1 

oie ! 




boite 


box 


o-a 


lamproie 


lamprey 


eoi { 


n&geoiie 


fin 


oe J 




moelle 


marrow 


oin 


ou-in 


soin 


care 


oua 


ou-a 


wuage 


wheel-work 


oua 


ou-a 


nous joudmes 


we played 


oueu 


ou-eu 


\oueui 


gambler 


oue ~\ 




]ouei 


to play 


oue 1 
ouee ( 


ou-e 


]0u6 
\ouie 


played 


ouai J 




je jouai 


I played 


oue ) 
ouai 5 


ou-e 


fouet 
je jouais 


whip 

I was playing [dollars 


oui ) 

ouie ) 




louis 


a gold piece, of about five 


OU-1 


Vouie 


the hearing 


oueu 


ou-eu 


boueux 


muddy 


ouan ) 
ouen > 




louange 


praise 


ou-an 


Rouen 


Rouen, a city of France 


ouin 


ou-in 


babouin 


baboon 


ouon 


ou-on 


nous jowons 


we play 


ua 


ou-a 


lingwal 


lingual 


ua 


u-a 


mwable 


mutable 


ua 


u-a 


nous pudmes 


we did stink 


ueu 


u-eu 


sueui 


sweet 


uai "] 




je ipuai 


I did stink 


ue 1 


, 


pwer 


to stink 


ue f 


u-e 


pwd 


stunk 


uee J 




nu6e 


cloud 


ue ) 
uai 5 


r 


fiuet 


slender 


u-e 


je pwais 


I was stinking 


ui 


u-i 


cmsse 


thigh 


uie 


u-i 


ipluie 


rain 


uo 


u-6 


impetwosite 


impetuosity 


ueu 


u-eii 


impetwewx 


impetuous 
owl 


uan ) 
uen ) 




chat-hwant 


u-an 


influence 


influence 


uin 


u-in 


yuin 


June 


uon 


u-on 


nous pwons 


we stink 



With the assistance of the preceding table, the student will 
be able to pronounce all the sounds of the diphthongs ; but we 
cannot insist too much upon the necessity of acquiring a cor- 
rect idea of them from the mouth of a teacher. 

45. There are in French some terminations which present 
great difficulty to English pupils. We will give a list of them, 
with some slight indications as to their pronunciation, insisting 



12 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



always upon the necessity of a direct communication with 
teacher in order to obtain a correct idea of them. 



French words 



French terminations. 


in which thei 




are found. ' 


ble 


cable 


bre 


marSre 


cle (sound of kle) 


miracfe 


ere (sound of kre) 


acre 


dre 


defence 


fle 


muffle 


fre 


offre 


gle 


angle 


gre 


maigre 


pie 


yeuple 


pre 


ipiopre 


tre 


poutfre 



Corresponding sounds in English. 

at the end of a word sounds as 



bl at the beginning of 



bl-aze 

br-ace 

cl-ever 

cr-edit 

dr-ama 

fl-eet 

fr-ont 

gl-ue 

gr-ound 

pl-easure 

pr-une 

tr-ace 



OF PUNCTUATION, AND OTHER SIGNS USED 
IN THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

46. The marks of Punctuation are similar in French and in 
English, as well as the other signs used in writing ; they are 
called by the following names : 



Comma, , 

Semicolon, ; 

Colon, 

Period, 

Note of interrogation, ? 

Note of admiration, or 

exclamation, ! 

The parenthesis ( ) 

The dash, — 

A quotation, " " 



virgule. 

point, et virgule, 

deux points. 

un point. 

point oV interrogation. 

point oV admiration, ou 

d? exclamation, 
parenthese. 
le trait de separation, 
guillemets. 



47. Cedilla, (p) cedille, gives to the c the sound of ss. 

48. Diaeresis, ( •• ) trema, placed above the vowels e, i, u, 
to indicate that these vowels do not form a diphthong with the 
next vowel, but should be pronounced by themselves ; as, 
po'eme, hair, Saul 



PUNCTUATION. 13 

49. The hyphen, ( - ) trait d'union ; this sign is used to con- 
nect together, first, compound words, as, arc-en-ciel ; second, 
the personal pronouns nominative and the verb, when placed 
after the verb in interrogative sentences, as, aime-la, aimons- 
nous ; third, the objective pronouns and the verb in the imper- 
ative mood, as, ecoute-moi, parle-lui ; fourth, it is also used, 
when, at the end of a line, a word being too long must be di- 
vided, and the latter part written in the next line. 

50. The apostrophe ( y ) V 'apostrophe , which is used to show 
the elision of a vowel when followed by another vowel, or by 
an h mute ; as, Phomme, V etude, instead of le homme, la etude. 
This sign is employed merely for the sake of euphony. 



elision. 



51. The apostrophe ( ' ), as we have just stated, is placed 
between two words to show the suppression of the vowel end- 
ing the first word before another vowel or an h mute. 

52. This suppression is called elision, and causes the two 
words to be pronounced together, as if forming but one. The 
only vowels which suffer elision are, a, e, i. 

53. This last vowel, t, is suppressed only in one word, si, if, 
when this word comes before the personal pronouns nominative 
of the third persons singular and plural, il, Us ; thus, instead of 
writing, 

54. Si il, for if he, or si Us, for if they, the letter i is sup- 
pressed in the word si, and we write, sHl, s'ils. 

55. The letters a, e, are suppressed in the following words, 
when the next word begins with a vowel or an h mute. 

le, meaning, the, him, it, P. 

la, " " her, " l\ 

fa *« I, y. 

me, u me, m\ 

te, " thee, t\ 

se, " himself, herself, itself, 

themselves, s\ 



14 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



ce, meaning, 


, this or that, it, 


c\ 


de, 


of, from, 


d\ 


ne, u 


not, 


n\ 


que, u 


that, which, whom, 


qu\ 


parceque, " 


because, 


parcequ? 


quoique, u 


although, 


quoiqu\ 


puisque " 


since, 


puisqu\ 


jus que , " 


until, 


jusqu\ 


vuque, u 


since, 


vugu\ 


desque, u 


as soon as, 


desqu\ 


quelque, " 


some, fyc, 


quelqu\ 


entre, u 


between, 


entr\ 



56. In this last word, entre, the e final may be suppressed 
or not before another word beginning with a vowel or an h 
mute ; thus, we may write, entr'eux or entre eux, enWautres 
or entre autres, &c. 

57. The words, Ze, la, ce, used as objective or nominative 
pronouns, do not suffer the elision, when placed after the verb, 
in interrogative sentences or in the imperative mood, and be- 
fore words beginning with a vowel or an h mute ; thus, we say, 
apportez le, or la, ici, bring it here ; est-ce a lui a parler 1 
is it for him to speak ? 



OF GENDERS. 



58. Gender, in all languages, marks the difference between 
the sexes. » 

59. All that are of the male sex are said to belong to the 
masculine gender. 

60. All that are of the female sex are said to be of the fem- 
inine gender. 

61. This part of the language would present no difficulty to 
the student, if all the words to which the genders are applied 
were either male or female ; but inanimate objects have no sex, 
and yet have a gender. In English, this gender is called neu- 



GENDERS. 15 

ter ; but in French there is no neuter gender, and the whole 
family of nouns are either masculine or feminine. How, then, 
can a foreigner distinguish which of the two he must apply to 
things ? There are no satisfactory rules to guide him in this 
difficult study ; time, practice, and a good dictionary are the 
only means which may assist him efficiently. 

Some grammarians pretend to have established rules which 
they call complete ; but the result of their efforts has only 
proved the inutility of the attempt. Where, in order to estab- 
lish a rule, we have to admit nearly as many exceptions as 
there are cases which conform to the rule, there is no rule, 
and it is far better to tell the student, at once, that he must arm 
himself with patience and perseverance, than to delude him in 
an undertaking, which, after all his efforts and loss of time, will 
leave him, perhaps, further from the point he wished to gain 
than he was before beginning the study of this difficult matter. 

But, although we proscribe, as fruitless, the modes of gaining 
a correct knowledge of the genders of the French language, 
through the medium of mere barren rules, we admit that there 
are indications which may be of great service to foreigners, and 
we will give them here, but only as matters for reference, and 
not to be committed to memory. We repeat, that a good dic- 
tionary is the only sure guide on this subject. 

62. The terminations of words are distinguished, by gram- 
marians, as either masculine or feminine. 

63. Words ending with an e mute are said to be of the fem- 
inine termination. 

64. Words not ending with an e mute are said to be of the 
masculine termination. 

These denominatives, however, are far from being of a gen- 
eral application ; but, before entering upon the details of the 
exceptions, we will speak of the nouns which, denoting spe- 
cies, have a fixed gender, independently of their termination. 

65. First ; God, angels, cherubim, and seraphim are of 
the masculine gender. 

66. Second ; all names of living beings, and all proper 
names of men and women, are of the gender of the sex which 
they represent. 



16 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



67. When, however, the same noun is employed to desig- 
nate both the male and the female in animals, this noun takes 
the gender of its termination, with the following exceptions. 

68. First ; masculine nouns with feminine terminations. 

Aigle, 



eagle 
Bievre, heaver 

Buffle, buffalo 

Capricorne Capricorn 
Crabe, crab 

Congre, conger 



cygne, swan. 

dromadaire, dromedary. 

lievre, hare. 

merle, blackbird. 

rouge-gorge, red-breast. 

zebre, zebra. 



69. Second ; feminine nouns with a masculine termination. 

Fourmi, ant souris, mouse. 

perdrix, partridge chauve-souris, bat. 

70. Third ; all diminutive names of animals, whenever the 
animals of both sexes are called by the same denomination, are 
of the masculine gender, whatever may be the original noun 
from which they are derived ; as, 

Un lionceau, a young lion. 

Un souriceau, a young mouse. 

Un carpillon, a young carp. 

Un perdreau, a young partridge. 

Un vipereau, a young viper. 

Un becasseau, a young woodcock, &c. 

71. The word becassine, snipe, being feminine, seems to be 
an exception to this rule, but it is not so ; because, although 
this noun is derived from becasse, it designates another species 
of birds, and not a young one of the same family. 

72. Where the diminutive names of animals are not the 
same for both sexes, they follow the general rule, and are of 
the same gender as the object which they represent ; as, 

Un poulain, une pouliche, a colt. 

Un cochet, une poulette, a young chicken, &c. 

73. Fourth ; diminutive names of inanimate objects take, 
generally, the same gender as the nouns from which they origi- 
nate ; as, 



GENDERS. 17 

Batelet, masc. from bateau, masc. a small boat. 

Maisonette, fern. " maison, fern, a little house. 
Globule, masc. " globe, masc. a small globe , &c. 

74. We say generally, because there are exceptions to the 
above rule ; as, 

Corbillon, masc. from Corbeille, fern, a small basket. 

Soliveau, " " solive, " a small beam. 

Cruchon " " cruche, " a small pitcher. 

Savonette, fern. " savon, masc. a wash-ball, &c. 

75. Fifth ; all the names of the days, months, and seasons 
of the year are masculine, except automne, which is of both 
genders ; but, when the word mi, half, is prefixed to the name 
of a month, the compound word thus formed becomes femi- 
nine ; as, 

La mi-mai, the half of the month of May. 

La mi-aout, " " August. 

76. So, also, La mi-careme, half of Lent. 

77. The saint-days are also feminine ; as, 

La Saint- Jean, St. John's day. 

La toussaint, fyc. Jill-Saint 's day, &c. 

because these compound words are elliptical, and mean, 

La moitie de Mai, La moitie oVAoiit. 

ha fete de St. Jean, ha fete de tous les saints, &c. 

78. Sixth ; 1. Names of trees are masculine, except yeuse, 
holm. 

79. 2. Names of shrubs are masculine, except 

Aubepine, haivthorn. 

Bourdaine, black alder. 

Epine, thorn. 

Honce, brier. 

Vigne, vine. 

80. 3. Names of metals are all masculine, as well as those 
of minerals, with very few exceptions. 

2* 



18 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

81. 4. Names of colors are all masculine, without reference 
to their termination. 

82. Seventh ; 1. Names of mountains, except those which 
have no singular. 

83. 2. The names of winds, except, 

La bise, north-east wind. 

La brise, light wind. 

La tramontane, tramontane. 

Les moussons, monsoon. 

84. 3. The nouns designating the cardinal points, and 
names of countries, take the gender of their termination, ex- 
cept, 

Le Bengal e, Bengal 

Le Mexique, Mexico. 

Le Peloponese, Peloponnesus. 

Le Caire, Cairo. 

Le Maine, 
Le Perche, 
Le Rouergue, 
Le Bigorre, 
La Franch Comte, 
and perhaps a few others. 

85. 4. Names of towns, boroughs, and villages are mascu- 
line, except those which take the article before them ; in which 
case the names are elliptical ; as, 

La Rochelle, for La Ville de Rochelle, 

La Nouvelle Orleans, " La Nouvelle Ville d'Orleans, &c. 

86. But, when the name of a city is preceded by the word 
ville , city, which is feminine, then the compound expression is 
of the feminine gender ; as, 

La ville de Paris, 

La ville de Rouen, &c. 

87. Eighth ; ordinal, distributive, and proportional numbers ; 
adjectives, infinitives, prepositions, adverbs, used as nouns, are 
all masculine ; as, 



GENDERS. 19 

Le tiers, a third le quart, the fourth, &c. 

Un cinquieme, a fifth un dixieme, a tenth. 
Le quintuple, the quintuple, &c. 

Le necessaire, what is neces- L 'utile, what is useful. 

sary * 

Le boire, drinking Le manger, eating, &c. 

Lemieux, what is best Le contre, what is against, &c. 

88. We must except the half, la moitie, and the following 
elliptical expressions ; 

Une courbe, for une ligne courbe, a curve. 

Une perpendiculaire, for une ligne, &c. a perpendicular. 
Une parallele, for une ligne parallele, a parallel, &c. 

Une antique, for une medaille, une sta- an old medal or 

tue antique, statue. 

as well as all similar expressions. 

89. Ninth ; all nouns expressing virtues are feminine, ex- 
cept courage and merite, courage and merit. 

All nouns expressing vices are feminine. 
All nouns expressing crimes are masculine. 



GENDERS OF NOUNS, MOSTLY DEPENDING ON THEIR 
TERMINATION. 

90. The names of fruits, grain, plants, and flowers general- 
ly take the gender of their termination ; there are, however, 
very many exceptions, which are too numerous to be mentioned 
here. The student, when in doubt, must consult his dic- 
tionary. 

91. We will now give a table of all the masculine termina- 
tions, with the exceptions attached to each. 



20 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



Number^ 








Number 


of words 








of words 


of the 


Masculine. 


Terminations. 


Feminine. 


of the 


masculine 








feminine 


gender. 








gender. 



none tie 

aparte, arrete, henedi- 
11 cite, comte, cote^ ete, te 
pate, traite, the, te, lethe. 

alibi, biribi* lundi, qui, • 
40 grand merci, &c. 
15 convoi, effroi, &c. oi 

3o ergo, vertigo, indigo, Q 

fichu, ecru, ecu, tissu, . 
10 &c. u 



200 
6 
3 

100 

200 



30 



11 



15 



aim 



aloyau, anneau, &c. au 

bref, chalef, chef, fief, * 
relief, grief. 

daim, essaim, abat- 
faim. 

an, ban, cran, ecran, 
&c. 

bain, baise-main,avant- 
main, garde-main, tourne- 
main, essuie-main, grain, 



amitie, inimitie, moitie, . 
pitie. 

absurdite, beaute, cha- 
rite, cite, dignite, fidelite, 500 
&c. 

fourmi, merci, gaqui, 4 
apres-midi. 

foi, loi, paroi. 3 

albugo, virago. 2 

bru, gru, tribu, vertu. 4 

eau, peau, surpeau, * 
sans-peau. 



clef, nef, soif. 


3 


faim, malfaim. 


2 


maman. 


1 



fin, main, nonnain. 



frein, &c. 




"cion 
sion 


succion, &c. 
cession, &c. 




scion, bastion, 


bestion,^ 


tion 


gestion, friction, &c. 


1100 


ixion. 


gion 


'region, &c. 








nion 


opinion, &c. 








_xion . 


reflexion, fluxion, &c. 




gabion, &c. 




'bion 






bandion, &c. 




dion 






lion, &c. 




lion 


rebellion, dent-de-lion. 


3 


tremion, &c. 


^ mion 


> 




espion, &c. 




pion 






septentrion, &c. 




rion 






gavion, &c. 




vion 


alluvion. 




alcyon, clayon 


crayon, 






say on, trayon, lamprayon, yon 


none. 




amphictyon. 






30 


brise-raison. 




aison 


cargaison, &c. 



peson, beson. 
grison, groison, horison 
tison, oison, poison, con-< 
trepoison. 
buson. 

basson, caisson, cave- 
sson, taisson, poisson, co- 
sson, buisson, frisson, he- 
risson, maudisson, nouri- \ 
sson, palisson, polisson, 
unisson, saucisson. l_ 

arcanson, echanson, 
tenson, pinson. 



ison 



garnison, guerison, prison, 
►trahison, cloison, foison, 11 
moison, pamoison, toison. 
camuson. 



uson 

paisson, boisson, moi- 
Uson, cuisson, salisson, g 
mousson. 



nson chanson. 



GENDERS. 



21 



2d 

30 
750 

70 

15 

12 

700 



250 



15 



20 



40 



charangon, cavegon. 
pingon, sugon, &c. 
bridon, gueridon, &c. 



gon 
don 
lon,ron 



baron, tendron, &c. 

abattis, appentis, iris, . 
tourne-vis, &c. 

bois, mois, carquois, 
harnois, &c. 

adent, chiendent, cure- , 
dent, Occident, trident, en 
&c. 

acharnement, juge- 
ment, &c. 



gent 
ment 



ballet, billet, basquet, et 

n 



&c. 

minuit, conduit, reduit, I 



uit 



&c. 

billot, brulot, complot 

&c. 

bout, gout, ragout, &c. 

faix, choix, crucifix 
prix, &c. 
taux, &c. 

houx, courroux, epoux 
&c. 

art, depart, champart, 
rempart, &c. 
effort, port, fort, tort, &c. 

fer, ver, liver, &c. 
air, eclair, &c. 
tour, contour, four, &c. 



ot 

_out 
ix 
aux 
oux 

art 

ort 
er 
air 
our 



bonheur, malheur, la- 
beur, honneur, deshon- 
Q00 neur, co3ur, anticceur, eur 
crevecceur, choeur, chou- 
fleur, pleur, equateur, 
secteur, &c. 



fagon, contrefacon, ^ 
malfagon, legon, rangon. 

dondon. 1 

saidron, souillon, tatil- „ 

Ion. 6 

brebis, souris, chauve- ,. 

1 



souris, vis, ins 
fois. 



dent, surdent. ~ 

gent, 
jument. 1 

foret. 

nuit. 4 

dot. 

glout. 

paix, croix, noix, poix, 
voix, perdrix. 
chaux, faux. 9 

j toux. 

J hart, part. 

C mort, malemort. 

•x cuiller, mer. 

f chair. 5 

Vcour, tour. 

aigreur, arapleur, ar- 
deur, blancheur, candeur, 
chaleur, chandeleur, cou- 
leur, clameur, douceur, 
douleur, epaisseur, erreur, 
faveur, defaveur, ferveur, 
fleur, passe-fleur, sans- 
fleur, fraicheur, frayeur, 
froideur, fureur, grand- 
eur, grosseur, hauteur, 
horreur, humeur, laideur, 
langueur, largeur, len- 
teur, liqueur, longueur, 
lourdeur, liseur, mai- 
greur, moiteur, noirceur, 
odeur, paleur, pesanteur, ^ 
peur, primeur,profondeur, 
puanteur, pudeur, impu- 
deur, rigueur, raideur, 
rondeur, rongeur, rou- 
sseur, rumeur, saveur, 
senteur, soeur, souleur, 
splendeur, sueur, teneur, 
terreur, tiedeur, torpeur, 
touffeur, tumeur, valeur, 
non-valeur, vapeur, ver- 



22 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



deur, vigueur, & mceurs. 
There are three old words, 
besides these ; basseur, 
tremeur, rancoeur, which 
are now obsolete, and com- 
plete the number, 76. 

As this list of exceptions is pretty accurate, all nouns with 
the termination ewr, which are not found among the above ex- 
ceptions, must be considered as being masculine. 



A TABLE OF NOUNS WHICH ARE MASCULINE IN ONE SIG- 
NIFICATION AND FEMININE IN ANOTHER. 



92. As if it were not already difficult enough for a foreigner 
to learn the gender of the nouns of our language, he must 
know that there are certain of them that are sometimes mas- 
culine, and sometimes feminine, according to their significa- 
tion, as follows : 



Masculine. 

assistant, helper aide 

eagle, a great genius aigle 

an angel ange 

an alder-tree aune 

barb, a Barbary horse barbe 

bard , a poet barde 

redbreast berce 

a sort of privateer capre 

an ornament to painting, a cartouche 

scroll 

a caravan, a hog, coche 

cornet, a standard-bearer cornette 

a couple, a male and a fe- cour> ] e 

male ™ 

a Croatian soldier cravate 

crape crepe 

an echo, the return of a ^ ^o 

sound 

ensign, a standard-bearer enseigne 

example, model, instance exemple 

a gimblet, a piercer foret 

a large tun foudre 

keeper, warden garde 

hoar-frost givre 

the rolls, the register greffe 

gules in heraldry gueule 

guide, director guide 



Feminine. 

aid, help, support 

a Roman standard 

a kind of thornback 

an ell, a sort of measure 

beard 

a slice of bacon, horse armor 

cow parsnip 

caper, an acid pickle 

cartridge 

a notch, a sow 
a woman's head-dress, when 
in dishabille 

a brace, two of a sort 

a neckcloth 
a pancake 

Echo, a nymph 

a sign-post 

a copy for writing 

a wood, a forest 

lightning, a thunderbolt 

watch, hilt, nurse 

a serpent, in heraldry 

a graft 

the mouth of some beasts 

reins, for governing a horse 



GENDERS. 



23 



sunflower 

iris, rainbow, iris of the eye 

lacker, a kind of varnish 

a book 

a lot of otter's hair 

the handle of a tool 

a laborer 

memoir, a bill 

thanks 

mood, mode 

a pier or mound 

mould, cast, form 

a ship-boy 

the philosopher's stone 

office, business, prayers 

ombre, a game at cards 

the page of a prince 

a merry-andrew 

a hand's breadth 

pantomime 

easter, easter-day 

a comparison 

pendulum 

le Perche, a province of 

France 
summit, highest pitch 
anybody, nobody (pronoun) 
spade, at cards 
gnatsnapper, a bird 
a plane-tree 
a stove, a canopy 
post, a military station 
punto, at cards 
purple color, purples (a 

disease ) 
a pretence 
quadrille, at cards 
the calling back a hawk 
rest, relaxation 
a glass coach 
a sort of pear-tree 
satyr, a sylvan god 
serpentarius 
nap, slumber 
a smile 
a porter 

holder, book-keeper 
a tour, turn, trick 
triumph 
trumpeter 



a vase, a vessel 

a hat of Yigonia wool 

a veil 



heliotrope heliotrope, jasper 

iris spring crystal, proper name 

laque lacca, gum lac 

livre a pound 

loutre an otter 

manche a sleeve, English Channel 

manoeuvre the working of a ship 

memoire memory 

merci pity, mercy 

mode fashion 

mole mole, moon-calf 

moule muscle, shell-fish 

mousse moss, a plant 

ceuvre action, an author's work 

office pantry, larder, buttery 

ombre shade, shadow 

page page, in a book 

paillasse a straw bed 

„„!_.. the branch of a palm-tree, vic- 
paime tQry 

pantomime a dumb show 

paque the passover 

parallele a parallel line 

pendule a clock 

perche a Pole, perch, a fish 

periode period, epoch 

personne a person (a noun) 

pique a pike 

pivoine peony, a flower 

plane plane, an instrument 

poele a frying-pan 

poste the post for letters 

ponte the laying of eggs 

pourpre purple fish, purple dye 

pretexte pretext 

quadrille party of horse in a tournament 

reclame a catch- word (in printing) 

relache harbor 

remise a coach-house, a remittance 

sans-peau a sort of pear 

satyre a satire, a lampoon 

serpentaire snake-root, dragon's wort 

somme sum, load, name of a river 

souris a mouse 

Suisse Switzerland 

teneur tenor, purport, content 

tour tower, rook at chess 

triomphe a trump 

trompette trumpet 

vague a wave, surge 

vase the slime in ponds, lakes, &c. 

vigogne a vigon, a llama 

voile a sail 



24 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



TERMINATIONS SHOWING THE SIMILARITY OF WORDS IN 
FRENCH AND ENGLISH. 



93. There are many words which are alike in both languages. 
These words are known by their terminations, as will be seen 
by the following list. 



Terminations. 

al 

ble 

ace 

ance 

ence 

ice 

acle 

ade 

age 

ege 



as animal, cardinal, fatal, general, local, moral, &c. 

" capable, fable, &c. , Bible, eligible, &c. , noble, double, soluble, &c. 

" face, grimace, grace, place, race, &c. 

" chance, complaisance, extravagance, ignorance, &c. 

" prudence, conference, continence, patience, &c. 

" artifice, auspice, edifice, orifice, &c. 

" miracle, obstacle, receptacle, spectacle, &c. 

" ambuscade, brigade, cavalcade, parade, &c. 

" age, adage, cage, image, page, &c. 

" college, privilege, siege, sortilege, &c. 

" vestige, sage, barge, charge, forge, strange, &c. 

ule " globule, ridicule, formule, mule, pustule, &c. 

ile " bile, debile, agile, docile, facile, fragile, &c. 

ine " carabine, doctrine, heroine, machine, &c. 

ion " action, fraction, legion, opinion, passion, &c. 

ant " arrogant, constant, elegant, elephant, piquant, &c. 

ent " absent, accident, compliment, content, element, &c. 

94. Many other English words require only a change of 
termination ; as, 



gy 

ary 
ory 

cy 

ty 

ous or 
eous 
our, or 
ine 
ive 

7 

dy 



into 



gie 


as energy 


energie 


aire 


" military 


militaire 


oire 


" glory 


gloire 


ce 


" clemency 


clemence 


te 


" beauty 


beaute 


eux 


" courageous 


courageux 


u 


" dangerous 


dangereux 


eur 


" favor, error 


faveur, erreur 


in 


" clandestine 


clandestin 


if 


" attentive 


attentif 


rie 


" fury 


furie 


die 


" perfidy 


perfidie 



OF HOMONYMS. 

95. Homonym comes from the Greek, and signifies similar, 
A homonym is a word which appears to be identical with 
another word, or at least nearly so, either in its sound or 
spelling, but which differs from it in signification. 



HOMONYMS. 



25 



There are two kinds of homonyms. 1st. Those which are 
identical, whose spelling is exactly alike ; a word of this kind, 
to be the homonym of another, must differ from it in its natural 
signification ; it is not sufficient that it differs only by one 
being taken figuratively and the other not. 2d. Those which, 
having the same pronunciation, or nearly so, differ from each 
other in their orthography. 

The following list of homonyms is the most complete we 
have been able to find in the grammars which have treated 
of this subject. 



to 



acquis acquired 



acre 

adherant 

adieu 

affaire 

ah! 

aigayer < 

aile 
aine 

air 

ais 

alene 

aleze 

Alicante 

amande 

amant 

ami 

an 

anche 

ancre 

ane 

antre 

Anvers 

Appelles 

appas 

apprendre 

appendre 

appret 

argot < 

art 



sharp to the taste 
(pres. part, of) toad- > 

here > 

farewell 
business 
ah! 
to soak and wash in } 

water j 

a wing 
the groin 

the air < 

a plank 

an awl, pitcher 

a large clout 

Alicant (city of Spain) 

almond 

a lover 

a friend 

a year 

reed 

an anchor 

an ass 

a cavern 

the name of a city 

name of a painter 

charms 

to learn 

to suspend 

preparation 

a sort of language 

among thieves 
art, method 

3 



A List of Homonyms. 



acquit 
acquit 



adherent 

a Dieu 
a faire 
as 

egayer 

elle 

haine 

aire 

aire 

haire 

hais 

haleine 

a V aise 

aliquante 

amende 

Aman 

amict 

en 

hanche 

encre 

Anne 

entre 

envers 

en vers 

appelle 

appat 

a prendre 

a pendre 

apres 

Argo 

hart 



(he) has 

receipt 

he acquired, that he 

might acquire 
an acre 

adherent 

to God 
to do 
(thou) hast 

to make merry 

she 

hatred 

the nest of an eagle 

a threshing-floor 

hair shirt 

(I) hate 

breath 

comfortable 

aliquant (term of arith.) 

a fine 

a proper name 

amice 

in 

hip 

ink 

a proper name 

between 

towards 

(to write) poetry 

(he) calls 

a bait 

to be taken 

to be hung 

after 

the name of a vessel 

a rope 



26 



FRENCH GRAMMAR, 



auspice 


a presage 
name of a wind 


hospice 


a hospital 


Autan 


autant 


as much 


autel 


an altar 


hotel 


a hotel 


auteur 


an author 


hauteur 


height 


avant 


before 


C avent 
\ a vent 


the advent 
wind (mill) 


avez 


(you) have 


ave 


a prayer 


bayer 


to gape 


bailler 


to give 


balai 


a broom 


ballet 


a ballet 


banc 


a bench 


ban 


a ban 


basse 


an instrument 


basse 


feminine of low 






rbat 


(he) beats 


bat 


pack-saddle 


Jbas 


low 






[bas 


a stocking 


batiste 


cambric 


baptiste 


a baptist 


beau 


handsome ] |^ x 


leases 
club (foot) 


beaucoup 


much 


beau cou 


a handsome neck 


beaute 


beauty 


botte 


booted 


belle 


feminine of handsome 


Bayle 


a proper name 


beni 


$ blessed (speaking of 
I persons) 


[ benit 


blessed (speaking of 
things) 


bete 


an animal 


bette 


white beet 


boite 


»** Ul boite 


(he is) lame 
maturity of wine 


bon 


good 


bond 


a bound 


bonace 


a calm at sea 


bonasse 


too good 






Jbou 


a sort of tea 


bout 


the end 


.bout 


(he) boils 






'boue 


mud 


brocard 


taunt 


brocart 


brocade 


<ja 


there 


sa 


her 


caisse 


a case 


qu' est-ce ? 


what is it ? 


camp 


a camp 


i quand 
1 quant 


when 
as 


canne 


a stick 


i canne 


sugar-cane 






» canne 


a duck 


car 


for 


quart 


a fourth 


carte 


a card, a map 


quarte 


a quart 


cartier 


a seller of cards 


quartier 


a ward, a quarter 


ce 


this or that 


se 


one's self 


ceans 


here 


seant 


becoming 






"saint 


a saint 






sain 


sound 


ceint 


girdled < 


cinq 


five 






seing 


a seal 






_sein 


bosom 






"selle 


a saddle 


celle 


this (feminine) 4 


selle 
cele 


(he) saddles 
(he) conceals 






k scelle 


(he) seals 


cene 


the communion 


i scene 
> Seine 


fthe stage 

i name of a river, or a 

i sort of net 

I. feminine of sound 






r saine 


cense 


deemed 


sense 


sensible 





HOMONYMS. 


27 






'sans 


without 






sang 


blood 






sens 


sense 


cent 


one hundred «( (il) sent 


(he) feels 






e'en (est fait) 


it is all over 






s'en (il s'en 


he repents of it 






» repent) 




centaine 


a hundred 


sentene 


it 


centon 


a piece of poetry ! 


' Santon 
(nous) sentons 


a sort of Turkish monk 
(we) fall 


cerf 


a stag 


serf 


a bondman 


ces 


these or those 


ses 


his (plural) 


c'est 


it is 


(il) s'est (tue) 


he has killed himself 


cet 


this or that 


sept 


seven 






rCher 


a river 


chair 


flesh 


cher 

chere 

t chaire 


dear 
fair 






the pulpit 


champ 


a field 


chant 


singing 


chaos 


chaos 


cahot 


a jolt 


chaud 


hot 


chaux 


lime 


chene 


an oak 


chaine 


a chain 


chosur 


a chorus 


cceur 


the heart 


choix 


choice 


(je) choie 


(I) coax 


chrie 


an amplification 


(je) crie 


(I) scream 


cil 


eye-lash 


s'il 


if he 


cite 


a city 


citer 


to summon 


clause 


f an article of a deed ] 
\ or treaty | 
a clerk 


close 


feminine of shut 


clerc 


clair 


clear 


clou 


a nail 


Cloud (saint) 


the name of a saint 


colon 


a planter 


Colomb 


a proper name 


conte 


a tale ( 


compte 
comte 


an account 
Count 






contant 


reciting 


content 


pleased, satisfied < 


comptant 


accounting 






qu'on tend 


that one holds 


corps 


the body \ 


cor 
cor 


horn, an instrument 
corn 




f cote 


coast 


cote 


a rib -\ 


cote 

cotte (d'armes) 


a quotation 
a coat of arms 


, 


I quote (-part) 


quota 




< 


cout 


the cost 


cou 


the neck 


coup 


a blow 




( 


(je) couds 


(I) sew 




fcours 


a promenade, a mall 


cour 


a yard J 


cours 
court 


a course (of studies) 
short 




1 


.cour 


the court 


creme 


cream 


chreme 


chrism 


cri 


a shout ] 


eric 


a jack-screw 




(Jesus) Christ 


Christ 


crin 


(horse) hair 


craint 


feared 






(je) crois 


(I) believe 

(that he) may believe 


croix 


a cross < 


(qu'il) croie 






(il) croit 


(he) grows 



28 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



cru 



cru 



raw 







Ccrue 


cuir 


the skin of animals 


cuire 


cygne 


a swan 


signe 
Ccire 
( Sire 


Cyr 


the name of a saint 


dans 


in 


( dent 
\ dam 


danse 


the dance 


dense 


date 


a date 


datte 


degouter 


to disgust 


dego utter 


dela 


hence 


J dela 
( de la 


delasser 


to refresh 


delacer 
r des 


des 


of the (plural) 


}dais 
(Dey 


Descartes 


a proper name 


des cartes 


deuil 


mourning 


d'ceil 


different 


different 


different 


Didon 


a proper name 


< dis done 
} (il) dit done 


dime 


tithe 


(nous) dimes 


divers 


several 


d'hiver 
C (je) dois 


doigt 


a finger 


< (il) doit 

t d'oie 

C don (Pedro) 


don 


a gift 


< done 
Cdont 


doux 


sweet 


Doubs 
Cdu 


du 


of the 


< (je) dus 
C (il) dut 
r au 


eau 


water 


Jaux 
(aulx 


echo 


an echo 


ecot 
r (je) emploie 


emploi 


employment 


5 (tu) emploies 
( (ils) emploient 


enter 


to engraft 


hanter 


envie 


envy 


(al') envi 


ere 


an era 


C (un pauvre) here 
{ (il) erre 
^ (il est) 
| (qu'il) aie 


es 


thou art 


^ haie 
I (je) hais 










L(il) hait 


et 


and 


eh ! he ! 


etaim 


carded wool 


etain 
{ etang 


etant 


being 


< (je) etends 
C (il) etend 


etat 


a state 


(Eta 



believed 

grown 

overflowing 

to cook 

a sign 

wax 

sire 

a tooth 

damage 

thick 

date (a fruit) 

to drop 

from there 

of the 

to unlace 

from 

a canopy 

the Dey (of Algiers) 

of the cards 

which belongs to the eye 

differing 

say then 

(he) says then 

(we) said 

wintry 

(I) owe 

(he) owes 

of goose 

Don (Pedro) 

then 

whose 

the name of a river 

what is owed 

(I) owed 

(he) owed 

to the 

" (plural) 
plural of garlic 
club 

(I) employ 
(thou) employest 
(they) employ 
to frequent 
with emulation 
a poor fellow 
(he) wanders 
(he) is 

(let him) have 
an edge 
(I) hate 
(he) hates 
oh ! ah ! 
pewter 
a pound 
(I) extend 
(he) extends 
a mountain 



HOMONYMS, 



29 



etourdi giddy 

etre to be 

eux them 

exaucer to enhance 

excedant exceeding 

excellant excelling 

faire to make 



fait 



a fact 



faite 


top 


faon 
fasse 


a fawn 

(that he) may make 


faux 


false 


ferie 


a vocation 


fi 


fie, fy 


fin 


the end 


flan 


a sort of cake 



foi 



faith 



^f} a landed property 



foret 

forgat 
format 

fort 



a forest 

a galley slave 
the size of a book 

a fort 
a ditch 



fournil a laundry 



frais 


fresh 






(il) fume 
(queje) 
fusse 


(he) smokes 
I (that I) might 


be 


gai 


joyful 






gale 


the itch 






gant 


a glove 







geai 



jackdaw 



(a 1') etourdie 

hetre 

oeufs 

exhausser 

excedent 

excellent 
(fer 

I (il) ferre 
r (je) fais 
}faix 
( faits 
J faite 
Jfete 

(il) fend 

face 
C faulx 
I (il) faut 

feerie 
C(je)fis 
] (il) fit 
Cfils 
Cfaim 
I (il) feint 

flanc 
C (une) fois 
<Foix 
Cfoie 
ffond 
J (ils) font 
J (les) fonds (bap 
L tismaux) 
C foret 
I Forez 

(il) forca 

(il) forma 
$ (le) for (inte"- 
\ rieur) 
I fausse 
I fausse 
r fourni 
} (je) fournis 
( (il) fournit 
5frai 
I fret 

(nous) fumes 

fut-ce 



Cguet 
Jgue 
C galle 
^Gall 

Gand 

jet (d'eau) 

j'ai 



I 



ijaie 
Ljais 



giddily 

a beech-tree 

eggs 

to raise 

excedent 

excellent 

iron 

(he) shoes 

(I) make 

a load 

plural of made 

feminine of made 

a holyday 

(he) splits 

a face 

a scythe 

(he) must 

(a) fairy 

(I) made 

(he) made 

a son 

hunger 

(he) feigns 

side 

once 

the name of a country 

liver 

bottom 

(they) make 

(baptismal) fount 

a sort of gimblet 
the name of a country 
(he) forced 
(he) formed 

the conscience 

feminine of false 
past part, of to violate 
past part, of to furnish 
(I) furnish 
(he) furnishes 
the fry of fishes 
freight 
(we) were 

when it should be 

the watch 

a fording-place 

gall 

the name of a country 

the name of a city 

spout (of water) 

I have 

that I may have 

jet black 



30 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 







fgent 
J Jean 
nan 
Lj'en 


a species of individuals 


gens 


people 


John 
jan 
I of it 


goutte 


a drop 


( goutte 
I (je) goute 


the gout 
(I) taste 


grace 


a grace 


C grasse 


feminine of fat 
the name of a city 


gris 


gray- 


gnl 


gridiron 


guere 


little 


guerre 


war 


haut 


high 


(aux 
(aulx 


to the (plural) 
plural of garlic 


haute 


feminine of high 


J hote 
\ (il) ote 


a guest 

(he) takes away 


heros 


a hero 


i herault 
( Heraut 


a herald 

the name of a river 


hochet 


rattle 


(il) hochait 


(he) shook 


homar 


a lobster 


Omar 


a proper name 


horion 


a bruise, a blow 


Orion 


the name of a star 


hors 


out, except 


or 


gold 


jeune 


young 


jeune 


fasting 


joug 


a yoke 


joue 


a jaw 


jus 


juice 


i'eus 
(la 
( (il) Pa (vu) 


I had 


la 


the (feminine) 


there 

(he) has (seen) him 


lacet 


stay-lace 


S (il) lac, ait 
I (il) lassait 


(he) laced 
(he) tired 


lacs 


nets 


las 


tired 






Clait 


milk 


laid 


ugly 


<lai 


lay 






Claie 


sow of a wild boar 






C laine 
I P Aisne 


wool 


l'ame 


the groin 


the name of a river 


Laon 


the name of a city 


c lent 
{Pan 


slow 

on the year 


lard 


the fat part of bacon 


Part 


the art 


larme 


a tear 


Parme 


the arm 


1' attention the attention 


la tension 


the bending 


lecon 


a lesson 


le son 


the sound 


le 


a breadth 


lez 


near by 


les 


the (plural) 


legs 


a legacy 


leu r 


their 


5 leurs 
( leurre 


their, plural 
bait 


levain 


yeast 


levin 


the wine 


lice 


list 


lisse 


smooth 


lieu 


place 


lieue 


a league 


Lille 


the name of a city 


Pile 


the island 


lin 


flax 


PAin 


the name of a river 


Lion 


a lion 


C Lyon 

I (nous) lions 


the name of a city 
(we) tie 


Lionne 


the female of a lion 


l'Yonne 


the name of a river 


lire 


to read 


lyre 


a lyre 






C (je) lis 


(I) read 


lit 


a bed 


<lis 


a lily 






Clie 


dregs 


long 


long 


U'on 


they, people, &c. 


I (ils) Pont 


(they) have it 



HOMONYMS. 



31 



loi a law 

loup a wolf 

Luce a proper name 

lut lute 

lycee lyceum 

ma my (feminine) 

mai may 

main the hand 

maitre a master 

mandat a mandate 
(il) mande (he) states 

mante a large veil 



C the husks of grapes 



or a mark (of gold) 
marchand a merchant 
mari a husband 

menton the chin 



mer 



the sea 



mes my (plural) 



metre a metre 

(je) meurs (I) die 



half 



mille 
moi 

mon 

mort 
mort 



mot 



one thousand 
me 

my (masculine) 

death 
dead 



a word 



soft 
cat's meat 



l'oie 
(il) loue 
( (que je) lusse 

< (queje) l'eusse 
( (quetu)l'eusses 
Cluth 

I lutte 
lissee 
C mat 
I (il) m'a 
C (il) met 

< (je) mets 

( (qu'il) m'ait 

cMein 

( maint 

m' etre 

(il) manda 

Mende 
C Mantes 
\ menthe 
(. (qu' il) mente 

?mare 

marchant 

marri 

(nous) mentons 
C mere 
( maire 
fmais 

j (que tu) m'aies 
I (qu'ils) m'aient 
^ (tu) m'es 

(il) ra'est 

(je) mets 
l.mets 

mettre 

mo3urs 
fmie 
I (je) mis 
<{ (il) mit 
Im'y 
Lmi 

mil 

mois 
C mont 
I (ils) m'ont 
Cmors 

< (il) mord 
C (tu) mords 
C mots 

< maux 
C Meaux 
fmout 

J moue 
i (je) mouds 
^ (il) moud 



the goose 

(he) praises 

(that I) might read 

( " ) might have it 

(that thou) mightest 

lute [have it 

struggle 

feminine of smoothed 

mast 

(he) has to me 

(he) puts 

(I) put [me 

(that he) might have to 

the name of a river 

certain, some one 

to be to me 

(he) stated 

the name of a city 
(< 

mint 

(that I) may lie 

a small pond 



sorry 

(we) lie 

a mother 

a mayor 

but [me 

(that thou) mayest have 

(that they) may have me 

(thou) art to me 

(he) is to me 

1 put 

food 

to put 

manners 

the soft part of bread 

(1) did put 

(he) did put 

me to it 

a note of music 

one thousand 

a month 

a mount 

(they) have me 

a bit 

(he) bites 

(thou) bitest 

words 

the evils 

the name of a city 

new wine 

pout 

(I) grind 

(he) grinds 



32 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



mil 



moved 



mur a wall 

naitre to be born 



(il) nait (he) comes to life 

ne born 

negligent negligent 

neige the snow 

ni nor 

nceud a knot, a tie 

noix a nut 

nom name 

nourrice a nurse 

noyer a walnut 

nue feminine of naked 



nuit 



0! 



a night 



oh! 



ceufs 

oint consecrated 

ombre shade 

on they, people, &c. 

or gold, now 

„ a; „„a $ he who confers the 

ordmand } orders 



ou 

oubli 
oui 

pain 

pair 

paix 



or 

forgetfulness 
yes 

bread 

a peer 

peace 



c (tu) m'eus 
[ (il) m'eut 
rmur 
£mure 

n'etre 
r(je) nais 

(que je) n'aie 

I (que tu) n'aies 2 

(qu'il) n'ait 

(tu) n'es 

(il) n'est 

nez 

negligeant 

n'ai-je 

nid 

neuf 2 

c (je me) noie 
I (tu te) noies 
c non 

I (ils) n'ont (pas) 
r (queje) nourisse 
) (que tu) nou- 
{ risses 

noye 
C (je) n'eus 
I (il) n'eut 
r(je) nuis 
J nui 
i Nuits 
[Nuys 
roh ! ho ! 
J au, aux 
"j aulx 
[eau 

eux 

(vieux) oing 

hombres 

(ils) ont 

hors 

< ordinant 

roii A 
J aout 
£houx 
oublie 
C oui 
I ouie 
rpin 

1 (je) peins 
I (il) peint 
C (je) perds 
I (il) perd 
C (je) pais 
^ (il) pait 
(pet 



(thou) hadst to me 

(he) had to me 

ripe 

blackberry 

not to be 

(I) come to life 

(that I) may not have 

(that thou) mayest not 
have 

(that he) may not have 

(thou) art not 

(he) is not 

nose 

neglecting 

have I not 

nest 

nine (before a noun be- 
ginning with a cons.) 

(I) drown myself 

(thou) drownest (thy- 

no [self) 

(they) have not 

(that I) may nourish 

(that thou) mayest 
[nourish 

drowned 

(I) had not 

(he) had not 

(I) hurt 

hurt 

the name of a city 

oh! 

to the (sing, and pi.) 

plural of garlic 

water 

them, and to them 

(old) grease 

a game of cards 

(they) have 

except, out 

he who receives the 

orders 
where 
August 
holly 

sort of pastry 
heard 

the hearing 
a pine 

(I) am painting 
(he) is painting 
(I) lose 
(he) loses 
(I) graze 
(he) grazes 
wind 



HOMONYMS. 



33 



palais 
pale 

paon 

panse 
(je) panse 

par 

parceque 

Paris 

parterre 

parti 

pause 

peau 

peine 
pensee 

penser 
pergant 
(je) perce 
pere 

Persee 

peu 

peut-etre 
pinte 

plaie 

plaine 
plainte 
plan 

plein 

plus 

point 
pois 



a peacock 

beUy 

(I) dress (a wound) 

by 

because 

Paris 

the pit of a theatre 

refutation 

a stop, rest 

the skin 

a pain 
a thought 

to think 
piercing 
(I) pierce 
a father 

a proper name 

little 

perhaps 
a pint 

a sore 



a plain 
a complaint 
a plan 

full 



more 

not 

a pea 



palet 

pale 
'pan 

Pan 

(je) pends 
. (il) pend 

(je) pense 

(tu) penses 

(je) pars 

(il) part 

par ce que 

pari 

(je) parie 
, (tu) paries 

par terre 
! partie 
, (je) partis 
. (il) partit 



police the police 



( (tu) poses 

Cpot 

}Pau 

pene 
\ pansee 

\ panser 

Persan 
C Perte 
i (tu) perces 

paire 

} percee < 

C (je) peux 
t (il) peut 

(cela) peut 6tre 

peinte 
C (je) plais 
I (il) plait 

pleine 

plinthe 

plant 
C plain 
\ (je) plains 
C (il) plaint 
fplu 

1 (il) plut 

Lplut (a Dieu) 

poing 
C poids 
^poix 
t pouah ! 
r (que je) polisse 
1 (que tu) polis- 



quoit 

a dam 

part of a wall 

proper name of a god 

(I) hang 

(he) hangs 

(I) think 

(thou) thinkest 

(I) start 

(he) starts 

by that which 

a bet 

(I) bet 

(he) bets 

on the ground 

a port 

(I) started 

(he) started 

the laying of a stone 

(thou) placest 

a pot 

a name of a city 
" river 

a bolt 

past participle feminine 
of to dress 

speaking of a wound, 
to dress a wound 

Persian 

Persia 

(thou) piercest 

a pair 

fern, of the past partici- 
ple of the verb to 
pierce 

(I) am able 

(he) is able 

(that) may be 

painted (feminine) 

(I) please 

(he) pleases 

feminine of full 

a plinth 

a young plant 

level 

(I) pity 

(he) pities 

rained, pleased 

(he) pleased, or it 
rained 

might (God) please 

the fist 

weight 

pitch 

fye 

(that I) may polish 

(thou thou) mayst 
polish 



34 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



polisson a blackguard boy 

pont a bridge 

pou a louse 

precedent a precedent 

premices first-fruits 

president a president 

pret > ready 



prix price, value 

pouce the thumb 

puce a flea 



(nous) policons (we) govern 
polissons (we) polish 



puits 



pus 



quelle 

queue 

quoi 

quoique 

raisonner 

rang 

ras 

reine 

requin 

resident 

rets 

Rhin 

ris 

rond 

roux 
rubicond 

sa 

sabbat 



a well 



pus 



quand when 



which 

a tail 

what 
although 
to reason 

rank 

thorn 

a queen 

a shark 

a diplomatic officer 

nets 

Rhine 

the laugh 

round 

red 
red 

her 

the sabbath 



(elle) pond 

pouls 

precedant 

premisse 

presidant 
C pres 
I pres 
Cpris 
\ (il) prit 
v (qu'il) prit 
{ pousse 
\ (tu) pousses 
f puces 

J (que je) pusse 
] (que tu) pu- 
L sses 
C (je) puis 
<puis 
CPuy 
r(il)pue 
j (tu) pues 
{ (je) pus 
I (il) Put ■ 
I (qu'il) put 
f quant 
| Caen 
<j kan 
J camp 
l.qu'en 

qu'elle 
C queux 
I qu'eux 

coi 

quoi que 

resonner 
( (je) rends 
I (il) rend 

rat 
C renne 
< Rennes 
^ renes 

) requint j 

resident 
(Retz 
iraie 

reins 
J (il) rit 
(riz 

C (je) romps 
£ (il) rompt 

roue 

Rubicon 

Jc'a 

Saba 



(she) lays eggs 

the pulse 

preceding 

a term of logic 

presiding 

near 

soon 

taken 

(he) took 

(that he) might take 

shoot 

(thou) pushest 



(that I) might be able 
(that thou) mightest be 

able 
(I) am able 
then 

name of a city 
(he) stinks 
(thou) stinkest 
(I) was able 
(he) was able 
(that he) might be able 
as 

a name of a city 
a chief of Tartars 
a camp 
what of it ? 
that she 
a cook 
than them 
quiet, 

whatever that 
resound 
(I) render 
(he) renders 
a rat 
reindeer 
a name of a city 
veins 
a term used in playing 

cards 
residing 
a proper name 
ray 

the loins 
(he) laughs 
rice 

(I) break 
(he) breaks 
a wheel 

a name of a river 
that 

that has 
a proper name 



HOMONYMS. 



35 



saignotts let us bleed 
saint holy 



sainte 

salle 
salon 



sans 



feminine of holy 

a hall 
a parlor 

without 



sante health 

saule a willow-tree 

sceptique a skeptic 



seau 



a bucket 



seigneur lord 
Seine J 



a net, or a name of 
a river 



serein serene 

sentier a path 

servante a female servant 

session a session 



31 



Sion 

Simon 
Sinon 
sire 

site 

soc 

soi 

soir 
son 



if 

< the name of a moun- 
( tain 
a proper name 
<( 

sire 

a spot 

ploughshare 

one's self 



evening 

his, sound, bran 



sonner to ring 



sort 
sot 



destiny 
a fool 



ceignous 
fsain 
I ceint 
{ sein 
I seing 
I cinq 
C ceinte 

< Saintes 
C Cynthe 

sale 
C Salons 
t (nous) salons 
(-sang 
I sens 
•{ cens 
| (je) sens 
t(il) sent 

sentez 

sole 

septique 
C sceau 

< Sceaun 
Csots 

saigneur 
r saine 
2cene 
( scene 

serin 

(vous) sentiez 

Cervantes 

cession 
rsis 

(il) s'y (pre"- 
J pare) 
] scie 

I. six 
C scion 
(si on 

si mon 

sinon 

cire 
r (il) cite 
7 (tu) cites 
C Scythes 

socque 
fsoit 

J (que je) sois 
] (qu'il) soient 
Lsoie 

seoir 

(ils) sont 
C sonne 
I sonnez 
(saur 
( sors 

saut 



let us girdle 

sound 

girdled 

bosom 

seal 

five 

girdled (feminine) 

a name of a city 

a mountain in Delos 

dirty 

a name of a city 

(we) salt 

blood 

sense 

census 

(I) feel 

(he) feels 

feel 

sole, a fish 

a 

a seal 

a name of a city 

stupid (in the plural) 

a man who bleeds 

feminine of sound 

eucharist 

scene 

canary bird 

(you) felt 

a proper name 

cession 

situated 

(he prepares) himself 

to it 
a saw 
here 
six 

a small twig 
if they 
if my 
if not 



(he) summons 

(thou) summonest 

inhabitants of Scythia 

wooden shoe 

whether 

(that I) may be 

(that they) may be 

silk 

to seat 

(they) are 

rang 

ring 

red (herring) 

go out 

leap 



36 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 







^soul 
I sous 


drunk 


SOU 


a cent 


under 


souffre 


sulphur 


(tu) soufires 


(thou) sufferest 


statue 


a statue 


statut 


a statute 


sur 


sour 


sur 


upon 


surtout 


overcoat 


sur tout 


over all 


Sylla 


name of a man 


Scylla 


name of a rock 


ta 


thy (feminine) 


\ tas 
I (jl) t'a 


leap 

(he) has thee 


taie 


web in the eye 


i (je me) tais 
[ (il se) tait 


(I) keep silent 
(he) keeps silent 




C so much, or so 
( many 


, tan 
[ temps 


tan 


tant 


time, or weather 


tante 


an aunt 


i tente 

I (tu) tentes 


a tent 

(thou) temptest 


tapis 


carpet 


tapi 


squatted 


taux 


price 


tot 


soon 






'tain 


tin plate 






thym 


thyme 


teint 


dyed, complexion < 


(je) teins 


(I) dye 






(je) tins 


(I) held 




{ teint 

( dyed (feminine) 


L (il) tint 


(he) held 


teinte 


(il) tinte 


(he) tolls 


tel 


such 


Tell 


a proper name. 






r (il) t'en (don- 

nera) 
(je) tends 


(he) will give (thee 


temps 


time, weather ^ 


some) 
(I) bend 






■i (il) tend 


(he) bends 


terre 


the earth 


(se) taire 


to be silent 




thy (plural) 


r (tu) t'es (trom- (thou) hast been mis- 


tes 


pe) 
(il) t'est (de 
j voue) 
toit 


taken 
" > (he) is devoted to thee 


toi 


thou, or thee 


a roof 






r taon 


ox-fly 




("thy (sing, masculine) 


thon 


a tunny 


ton 


< tune 


(as) t-on (paye) have they paid ? 




|_tone 


(je) tonds 


(I) shear 






fc (il) tond 


(he) shears 




wrong • 


(je) tords 
(il) tord 


(I) twist 


tort 


(he) twists 




r a tower 


Tours 


a name of a city 


tour 


} a trick, turn, turning- 
( machine 










tous 


all (plural) 


tout 


all ! 


toux 


cough 






toue 


a tow-boat 


trace 


( trace, I trace, he < 
( traces ( 


Thrace 


a name of a country 


(tu) traces 


(thou) tracest 


trait 


an act, an arrow, &c. J 


tres 
(je) trais 


very 

(I) milk (the cow) 


tribut 


a tribute 


tribu 


a tribe 






' Troie 


a name of a city 


trois 


three 


► Troyes 


C a name of a city in 
( France 


trop 


too much 


trot 


trot 





GENDERS. 






i tirant 
1 tirant 


tyran 


a tyrant 


vas 


go 


(il) va 


vanter 


to prize 


venter 


veine 


a vein 


vaine 
f van 


vent 


the wind 


(je) vends 
' (tu) vends 


vente 


, c (je) vante 
sale \ (tu) vantes 






-vert 






verre 


ver 


a worm 


vers 
vers 


verrat 


a tame boar { (tu) verras 


vesce 


a sort of pea 


vesse 


(je) vets 


(D/- \§*V 


vice 


a vice 


vis 


vile 


vile (feminine) 


ville 
'vain 
vingt 






vin 


wine ^ (je) vins 






(il) vint^ 
^/qu'il) vint 






violat 


of violets ^f^vioL 




i 


- fie} veux 


vceu 


avow y (l 






"voie 


voix 


the voice < 


(je) vois 

(il) voit 
L (que tu) voies 
r (a) vaue l'eau 

Vaud 






vos 


your (plural) 


veal 

(par mont et 
k par) vaux 


(le) votre 


yours • 


' (je me) vautre 
; (tu te) vautres 



37 



a rope 

pulling 

(he) goes 

to blow 

feminine of vain 

a cribble 

(I) sell 

(thou) sellest 

(I) prize 

(thou) prizest 

green 

a glass 

a verse 

towards 

(he) shall see 

(thou) shalt see 

vind 

(he) dresses 

(I) go 

a screw 

a city 

vain 

twenty 

(I) came 

(he) came 

that he might come 

(he) violated 

(thou) violatedst 

(I) am willing 

(he) is willing 

a road 

(I) see 

(he) sees 

(that thou) mayst see 

lost, wrecked 

a name of a country 

calf, veal 

wandering through the 

world 
(I) tumble 
(thou) tumblest 



38 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



OF THE ARTICLE. 

96. The definition of this word, Article, has been the sub- 
ject of long and spirited discussions among grammarians, who 
are, even to this day, far from agreeing with each other on the 
nature of its functions in language. 

We wish the public to understand, that our object in this 
grammar is, and will always be, to reach the intelligence of 
the greatest number, without pretensions to science or novelty. 
We are satisfied that new denominations, although more ra- 
tional than those already in use, are of no benefit in practice, 
and serve only to confuse the minds of pupils ; therefore : 

Without entering into the details of the numerous systems 
contained in the most celebrated works on the French lan- 
guage, concerning the nature of this part of speech, we shall 
adopt the definition of Levizac, as conveying the clearest idea, 
and being in conformity with the notions generally adopted by 
scholars and teachers. 

97. u The article, being intended to express the direction 
of the mind towards the particular object which it has in view, 
is a word placed before common nouns, to designate that they 
are about to be taken in a definite sense." 

98. Such being the definition of the article, it is evident 
that there cannot exist what is generally called an indefinite 
article ; therefore the words a, an, will be hereafter classed 
among the adjectives. 

99. In English there is but one article, the. It is used 
before nouns of either gender and number ; it has neither 
elision nor contraction. 

100. In French, on the contrary, the article agrees in num- 
ber and gender with the noun which it precedes ; it admits 
of elision and contraction. 



ARTICLE. 



39 



ELISION. 

Without elision. 

101. Before a noun sing: masc. beginning with a consonant, or an h 

aspirated, the is expressed by le 

" sing. fem. " " la 

" plur. masc. or fem. " les 

With elision. 

102. Before a noun sing. masc. beginning with a vowel, or an h mute, 

£Ae is expressed by /' 

" sing. fem. " " /' 



Sing. 



Plur. 





Examples. 






Without elision. 


With elision in 


the singular. 


Masc. 


the day le jour 


Sing. M. 


the bird 


l'oiseau 


Fem. 


the night la nuit 


" F. 


the soul 


l'ame 


Masc. 


the owl le hibou 


" M. 


the man 


l'homme 


Fem. 


the hatred la haine 


" F. 


the inn 


l'hotellerie 


Masc. 


the days les jours 


Plur. M. 


the birds 


les oiseaux 


Fem. 


the nights les nuits 


" F. 


the soul 


les ames 


Masc. 


the owls les hiboux 


" M. 


the men 


les hommes 


Fem. 


the hatred les haines 
(plur.) 


" F. 


the inns 


les hotelleries 




CONTRACTION. 







103. The contraction of the article takes place in the singu- 
lar masculine, and in the plural masculine and feminine, before 
all nouns, when it is preceded by either of the prepositions, 
o/and to, de, a ; so that, 

104. of the, 1. before a noun sing. masc. beginning with a consonant or 

an h aspirated, is expressed by (contraction) clu (for 

de le) . 
*.* 2. before a noun sing. fem. beginning with a consonant, or 

an h aspirated, is expressed by (no contraction) de la. 
" 3. before a noun masc. or fem. beginning with a vowel, or 

an h mute, is expressed by (no contraction) de V. 
" 4. before a noun plur. is expressed by (contraction) des 

(for de les). 

105. to the, 1. before a noun sing. masc. beginning with a consonant, 

or h aspirated, is expressed by (contraction) au (for 

a le). 
" 2. before a noun sing. fem. beginning with a consonant, or 

an h aspirated, is expressed by (no contraction) a la. 
". 3. before a noun masc. or fem. beginning with a vowel, or 

an h mute, is expressed by (no contraction) a l\ 
" 4. before a noun plural is expressed by (contraction) aux 

(for ales). 



40 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 









Examples. 






106. 1. 


of the day 


sing. 


masc. 


beg. with 


cons. 


(de le) du jour 




" owl 


(< 


(< 


tt 


h asp. 


(de le) du hibou 


2. 


" night 


n 


fern. 


«< 


cons. 


de la nuit 




" hatred 


tt 


tt 


a 


h asp. 


de la haine 


3. 


" bird 


a 


masc. 


n 


a vowel (de le) de l'oiseau 




" soul 


a 


fern. 


a 


a vowel (de la) de l'ame 




" man 


a 


masc. 


tt 


h mute 


(de le) de l'homme 




" inn 


(< 


fern. 


t< 


h mute 


(de la) de l'hotellerie 


4. 


" days 


plur. 


masc. 


(C 


cons. 


(de les) des jours 




" nights 


it 


fem. 


tt 


cons. 


" des nuits 




" owls 


it 


masc. 


a 


h asp. 


" des hiboux 




" hatred 


a 


fem. 


tt 


h asp. 


" des haines 




" birds 


a 


masc. 


a 


a vowel 


" des oiseaux 




" souls 


a 


fem. 


tt 


a vowel 


" des ames 




" men 


a 


masc. 


it 


h mute 


" des hommes 




" inns 


it 


fem. 


a 


h mute 


" des hotelleries 


107. 1. 


to the day 


sing. 


masc. 


beg. with 


cons. 


(a, le) au jour 




" owl 


« 


masc. 


a 


h asp. 


(a le) au hibou 


2. 


" night 


<( 


fem. 


a 


cons. 


(a la) a la nuit 




" hatred 


it 


fem. 


a 


h. asp. 


(a la) a la haine : 


3. 


" bird 


n 


masc. 


a 


a vowel 


(a le) a l'oiseau 




" soul 


a 


fem. 


a 


a vowel 


(a la) a l'ame 




" man 


it 


masc. 


(i 


h mute 


(a le) a l'homme 




" inn 


a 


fem. 


a 


h mute 


(a la) a, l'hotelleries 


4. 


',* days 


plur. 


masc. 


u 


cons. 


(a les) aux jours 




" nights 


tt 


fem. 


u 


cons. 


" aux nuits 




" owls 


a 


masc. 


a 


h asp. 


" aux hiboux 




" hatred 


<< 


fem. 


a 


h asp. 


" aux haines 




" birds 


(« 


masc. 


a 


a vowel 


" aux oiseaux 




" souls 


u 


fem. 


a 


a vowel 


" aux ames 




" men 


n 


masc. 


a 


h mute 


" aux hommes 




" inns 


tt 


fem. 


a 


h mute 


" aux hotelleries 



108. Now that we have explained the mechanism of the 
article, and have laid it down, as a principle, that the article is 
used before a noun taken definitely, agreeing with that noun in 
number and gender, let us explain what we understand by a 
noun taken definitely. 

109. A common noun is definite when it signifies a whole 
species of persons and things, a distinct part of a whole species, 
or a single individual of a whole species. 

A common noun designates a whole species of persons 
and things, when it represents all the individuals named by 
that noun. 



ARTICLE. 41 



Examples. 



Men are not wicked. Les hommes ne sont pas mechants. 

Children are troublesome. Les enfants sont turbulents. 

Man ought to rule his passions. L'homme devrait regler ses passions. 

In the first and last sentences, les hommes, Vhomme, desig- 
nate the whole species of beings called men. In the second, 
children signifies the whole species of beings called children. 

110. The common noun designates a distinct part of a 
whole species, when, by some qualification, it separates a 
certain class from the whole : as, 

Examples. 

Wicked men are to be feared. Les hommes mechants sont a craindre. 

Studious children are loved by their Les enfants studieux sont aimes de 

masters. leurs maitres. 

A weak man is governed by his L'hommefaible est gouverne par ses 

passions. passions. 

In the first and last sentences we do not speak of all men, 
but of distinct classes of men ; those who are wicked, those 
who are weak. 

111. The common noun designates a single individual of a 
whole species, when it presents to the mind the idea of a 
single object of that species : as, 

Examples. 

The king is loved by his subjects. Le roi est aime de ses sujets. 
France is a large kingdom. La France is un grand royaume. 

The man of whom you speak. L'homme dont vous parlez. 

In these three sentences we speak only of one king, of one 
country, called France, of one man, the one of whom you 
speak. 

112. The functions of the article, as a part of speech, being 
to designate the noun which it precedes in a definite manner, 
it is evident that, where a sentence contains several nouns, used 
as nominatives or objectives, it must be repeated before each 
of them ; thus we say, 

Examples. 

The horses, cattle, sheep, and mules, Les chevaux, les bestiaux, les brebis 
are in the pasture. et les mules sont dans la prairie. 

I have bought the knives, the forks, J'ai achete les couteaux, les four- 
the glasses, and the decanter, of chettes, les verres, et \a carafe 
which we were in need. dont nous avions besoin. 

4 # 



42 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

This rule, as well as the agreement of the article with the 
noun which it precedes, is without exceptions. 

113. The article, being definite, cannot be placed before 
any other word but the common noun, or before words used as 
such, elliptically or idiomatically ; which is sometimes the 
case with adjectives, verbs, adverbs, and prepositions : as, 

Examples. 

1. The miser is poor among his Itavare est pauvre au milieu de ses 
riches. richesses. 

2. Eating is more necessary than Le manger est plus necessaire que 
drinking. le boire. 

3. That man would know the how Get homme voudrait savoir le pour- 
and why of every thing. quoi et le comment de tout. 

4. There are people who defend the II y a des personnes que soutiennent 
pro and con without any motive le pour et le contre sans autre 
but love of contradiction. motif que celui de contredire. 

It is evident that in these examples, Pavare is used for 
the man who is a miser, le manger and le boire for food and 
drinks, pourquoi and comment for the motive, le pour et le contre 
for one side of the question and the other ; those words, having 
changed their nature through an operation of the mind, which 
has made them common nouns, take the article in accordance 
with the general rule. 

114. Common nouns are sometimes used in a partitive 
sense ; they are then preceded in English by some or any ; 
sometimes, however, these words are not expressed, but un- 
derstood ; but in French they must always be expressed and 
repeated before each noun ; as follows, 

Examples. 

Give me some bread (a part of the Donnez moi du (de le) pain. 

bread). 
Give me some beer (a part of the Donnez moi de la bierre. 

beer. 
Give me some apples (a part of the donnez moi des (de les) pommes. 

apples). 
Give me some water (a part of the Donnez moi de l'eau. 

water) . 

115. It may be remarked, that the word some is expressed 
as the article of the should be before the same noun. This 
indication may be useful to students who already know how to 
render these two words in French. 



ARTICLE. 43 

116. But if the common noun is preceded by an adjective, 
the article is suppressed, and the preposition alone is used ; 
as follows, 

Examples. 

Give me some good bread. Donnez moi de bon pain. 

Give me some good beer. Donnez moi de bonne bierre. 

Give me some good apples. Donnez moi de bonnes pommes. 

Give me some good water. Donnez moi de bonne eau. 

117. After a negation the article is not expressed ; so we 
say of any before a noun preceded or not by an adjective : 

Examples. 

I have not any apples. Je n'ai pas de pommes. 

1 have not any good apples, &c. Je n'ai pas de bonnes pommes, &c. 

118. Observe, if the adjective be placed after the noun, the 
article should be used with the preposition o/, provided the 
sentence is affirmative ; if negative it follows the preceding 
rule. 

Examples. 

Give me some dried apples. Donnez moi des pommes seches. 

Give me some fresh bread. Donnez moi du pain frais. 

I have not any dried apples. Je n'ai pas de pommes seches. 

I have not any fresh bread. Je n'ai pas de pain frais. 

If we reflect upon the real meaning of the sentences we 
have used, to illustrate the above partitive expressions, we 
shall see that they agree with the general rule, that the article 
must be employed only before nouns taken in a determinate 
meaning ; for when I say, Give me some bread, I speak of 
the bread which is there, on the table before my eyes, or 
which in my mind ought to be there ; it is then definite, and 
the article is used ; but, when I say, Give me some good 
bread, I do not refer to any particular loaf of bread ; I do 
not care whether the bread be there or not ; I want some 
good bread, that is all ; the word bread, then, is indefinite, and 
the article must be omitted. The same mode of reasoning 
may be applied to the other cases, to show that there is no 
discrepancy with the rule in any of them, from the suppres- 
sion or addition of the article. 



44 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

119. When a common noun is composed of a noun and an 
adjective, these two words form a sense which is indivis- 
ible ; they are the equivalent of a single word, and conse- 
quently ought to be preceded by the article, although employed 
in a partitive sense ; as, 

des petits-maitres. des petits-pates. 

des petites-maitresses. des petits-pois. 

120. But when the noun does not form an indivisible sense 
with the adjective, it ought not to be preceded by the arti- 
cle ; as, 

We become as young children with- Nous devenons comme de petits en- 
out pride, malice, and disguise. fants sans orgueil, sans malice, et 

sans deguisement. 

des petits enfants would be incorrect. 

121. The partitive sense should not be mistaken for the 

general sense, for in this latter case the article must be used ; 

as, 

It is the opinion of ancient philosophers. C'est l'opinion des anciens phi- 

losophes. 

This expression, des anciens philosophes, is not partitive, but 
signifies a whole. 

122. The article is placed before the names of countries, 
regions, rivers, winds, and mountains ; as, 

France, the Pyrennees, and the Med- La France, les Pyrennees, et la 

iterranean sea, to the south ; Ger- Mediterranee au sud ; f Alle- 

many, Switzerland, and Italy, to magne, la Suisse, et Z'ltalie a 

the west. Z'ouest. 

123. Exceptions ; 1st. The countries which have the same 
names with their capitals ; as, 

Naples and Corfu are delicious coun- Naples et Corfou sont des pays 
tries. delicieux. 

124. 2d. The names of countries which are preceded by 
the preposition in, expressed by en ; as, 

He is in Italy. II est en Italic 

He lives in France. II vit en France. 

125. 3d. The same exception takes place when they are 
joined to another noun by the preposition o/*, de ; as, 

the King of England. le Roi d'Angleterre. 

the Wines of France. les Vins de France. 



ARTICLE. 45 

126. 4th. And, finally, when we speak of coming from 
those countries ; as, 

I come from Italy. Je viens d'ltalie. 

I arrive from Spain. J'arrive d'Espagne. 

127. Some of these expressions are idiomatical ; but in 
the following, the King of England, the Wines of France, Eng- 
land and France are clearly used adjectively ; they mean only 
that the king is not the King of France or any other country, 
that he is the English King, and that the wines are neither 
Spanish nor German, but French. But, if we personify the 
name of the country, or if the mind attaches to it a definite 
idea, then the article must be used ; as, 

The politeness of France. La politesse de la France (or of the 

French people). 

The nobility of Germany. La noblesse de l'Allemagne (of the 

country which, being bounded as it 
is, is called Germany). 

128. Although the general rule is, that the article should not 
be used before names of countries from which we come, it is 
retained before those of far distant regions ; and we say, 

I arrive from China. J'arrive de la Chine. 

I come from Peru. Je viens du Perou. 

And also before the names of certain provinces and cities 
which, formed of common nouns, always have the article be- 
fore them ; as, 

The Harbour of Grace. Le Havre de Grace. 

New-Orleans, &c. La Nouvelle-Orleans. 

129. As to the names of mountains, they do not present 
any difficulty ; they all take the article, because before most of 
them the word mount is understood, and expressed before the 
others ; so we say, 

The Cordilleras. Les (monts) Cordillieres. 

The Alps. Les (monts) Alpes. 

The Apennines. Les (monts) Apennins. 

The mount Valerien. Le mont Valerien. 

The mountain of Carare. La montagne de Carare. 

Usage and practice are the only guides in these cases. 

130. The names of rivers sometimes take the article, and 
sometimes not ; as, 



46 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

The water of the Seine is muddy. L'eau de la Seine est bourbeuse. 
I drink the water of the Seine. Je bois de l'eau de Seine. 

In the first example, the word Seine is definite in its mean- 
ing ; it limits the extent of the word ivater to that river called 
Seine, and the article is used. 

In the second example, the same word Seine is indefinite, 
and signifies only that I drink such water called Seine-water, 
in opposition to any other water ; as, Mississippi water, &c. 
&c. It is then used adjectively, and requires no article. 

131. We say, also, 

River water is soft, L'eau de riviere est douce, 

Sea water is salted, L'eau de mer is salee, 

without the article, because riviere and mer are used only to 
qualify water, without defining the extent of the signification of 
the word water ; but if we speak of the water which fills up 
the depths of the sea, as a quantity of water, then we say, 

The water of the sea, L'eau de la mer, 

because it signifies the whole of the water which fills up that 
part of the globe which is covered with water. 

132. The article is not placed before common nouns, if, in 
using these nouns, we do not mean a whole species, or a dis- 
tinct part, or a single individual of either ; that is to say, if we 
do not intend to express the extent of their signification ; as, 

The fields are filled with laurels, Les champs sont remplis t?e lauriers, 

jasmines, and other fine trees, de jasmins, et rf'autres jolis ar- 

and the mountains are covered bres, et les montagnes sont cou- 

with stocks which produce fine vertes de troupeaux qui fourni- 

wool. ssent de belles laines. 

In order to understand this rule well, we must distinguish 
two qualities in the common nouns, the signification, and the 
extent of that signification. The signification is ordinarily pre- 
cise, for it is very rare that we alter the meaning of a word ; 
but the extent of that meaning varies when the nouns express 
ideas either general, particular, or single, and in each of these 
cases it is determinate or definite ; so that a noun is definite 
when it expresses any of these three conditions, and it is in- 
definite when in the sentence there is nothing which shows 
clearly that it must be taken generally, in a particular manner, 



ARTICLE. 47 

or individually, as in the words, lauriers, jasmins, &c, and the 
article must not be used. 

133. Sometimes the common nouns are mere adjectives ; 
when we say, 

A table of marble is beautiful. Une table de marbre est belle. 

A snuff-box of gold is precious. Une tabatiere d'or est precieuse. 

the common nouns marbre, or, qualify table, and box, but in a 
vague and indefinite manner ; they are used for the sake of their 
signification alone, without any regard to the extent of that sig- 
nification. 

134. But, if we say, 

A table of the marble which comes Une table du marbre que l'on tire 

from Italy is beautiful. d'ltalie est belle. 

A snuff-box of the gold which comes Une tabatiere de Vox que Ton tire 

from Mexico. du Mexique, 

the common nouns marbre and or are not only used in regard 
to their signification, but also to the extent of that signification, 
because it is not of marble and gold only that the table and 
snuff-box are made, but of the particular marble which comes 
from Italy, and of the gold which comes from Mexico ; there- 
fore the article must be used. 

135. From these remarks, it results, that the common nouns 
are used without the article, when, — 

136. First; they are used as titles of books, or chapters, 
or as directions ; as, 

Observations on the state of Eu- Observations sur l'etat de l'Europe. 

rope. 

General Reflections. Reflexions Ginirales. 

Preface. Preface. 

He lives in Piccadilly Street ; in II demeure Rue Piccadilly ; Rue 

Washington Street. Washington. 

137. Secondly ; when they are under the government of the 
preposition in, en ; as, 

To be in town. Etre en ville. 

Tospeak as a sensible man. Parler en homme sense. 

138. Thirdly ; when they are joined to the verbs avoir or 

faire, and some others, so as to express with them but a single 

idea ; as, 

To be afraid. Avoir peur. 

To excite pity. Faire pitie. 



4S FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

139. Fourthly ; when they are employed as apostrophes or 
interjections ; as. 

Courage, friends! defend your- Courage, amis! defendez vous ! 
selves ! 

140. Fifthly ; when they change their primary signification 
into a qualification, which may take place in different ways ; 
as, 

Are you surprised that Napoleon Etes vous surpris que Napoleon ait 

was more than a man in some of ete plus qu'Aomme dans plusieurs 

his acts ? de ses actes ? 

We see with delight the vast fields Nous voyons avec delices les vastes 

covered with golden harvests, the campagnes couvertes de moissons 

rich gifts of Ceres. dorees, riches dons de Ceres. 

In the first sentence, the word homme is taken adjectively ; in 
the second, the phrase riches dons modifies moissons dorees, 

141. Sixthly ; when they are used, at the beginning of an in- 
cidental sentence, elliptically ; as, 

All the nations of the globe have a Touts les peuples de la terre ont 
notion more or less clear of a Su- une idee plus au moins juste d'un 
preme Being; an evident proof Etre Supreme; preuve ividente 
that original sin has not totally que le peche originel n'a pas tout- 
obscured our understanding. a-fait obscurci notre jugement. 

The ellipsis here consists in the omission of the words which 
is, before evident proof ; which, if expressed, would be fol- 
lowed by a, une. 

142. Seventhly ; when they are under the regimen of the 
words sorte, espece, genre, and others of the same nature ; as, 

A sort of peaches. Une sorte de p6ches. 

A kind of drawing. Un genre de dessin. 

A heap of rubbish. Tin monceau de decombres, 

A gang of robbers. Une bande de voleurs. 

A pile of books. Une pile de livres. 

A pack of dogs. Une meute de chiens. 

143. Remarks. We must not mistake the above sentences 
for those in which taste and elegance alone cause the article 
to be suppressed, in order to give more rapidity and energy to 
the style ; as, 

Citizens, foreigners, enemies, peo- Citoyens, etrangers, ennemis, peu- 
ple, kings, emperors, pity and re- pies, rois, empereurs, le plaignent 
spect him. et le respectent. 

144. There are many idiomatical and proverbial expressions 



ARTICLE. 49 

which are constructed without the article, and would sound 
badly by its addition, but they prove nothing against the rule, 
and should be considered as the result of usage and habit only ; 

as, 

Poverty is no vice. Pauvrete n'est pas vice, (standing 

for La pauvrete n'est pas un vice.) 

In which usage has suppressed la and un. 

145. The article should not be placed before nouns preceded 
by the pronouns mon, ton, son, notre, votre, leur, ce, nul, aucun, 
quelque, chaque, tous (used for chaque), certain, plusieurs, and 
tel ; nor before a cardinal number taken absolutely ; as, 
Twenty men fired at me. Vingt hommes firent feu sur moi. 

These pronouns and nouns of number exclude the article, be- 
cause they all operate as the article would before the common 
nouns ; they designate them in a precise manner, and give them 
the definite character which these nouns have in the mind of 
him who speaks. 

146. But, if the cardinal numbers have a connexion with 
what precedes or follows, they are no longer used in an abso- 
lute mode, and must be preceded by the article ; as, 

On the occasion of the miracle of the Dans le miracle de la multiplication 

multiplication of loaves, the apos- des pains, les Apotres dirent au 

ties said to (the) Christ ; We Christ ; Nous n'avons que cinq 

have but five loaves and two fish- pains et deux poissons. Alors 

es. Then Jesus Christ, taking the Jesus Christ prenant les cinq pains 

five loaves and the two fishes, et les deux poissons, les benit. 
blessed them, &c. 

In the last part of this sentence, cinq pains, and deux pois- 
sons, are connected with what precedes, and must be pre- 
ceded by the article ; whereas, in the first part they are not, 
and no article is used. 

147. Proper names of deities, men, animals, towns, and 

particular places do not take the article, if they are not taken in 

a limited sense ; as, 

God has made the world as it is. Dieu a fait le monde comme il est. 

Mars was the god of armies. Mars etait le dieu des armees. 

Pegasus was the horse of the Par- P6gase etait le cheval du Parnasse. 

n ass us. 
New York is a city of great beauty. New York est une ville d'une grande 

beaute. 

148. But when those nouns are restricted in their meaning 

5 



50 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

they become common nouns applied to one or several individu- 
als, and are used definitely ; as, 

The God of Christians. Le Dieu des Chretiens. 

The Mars of the Iliad. Le Mars de l'lliade. 

The Pegasus of Apollo. Le Pegase d'Apollon. 

The old New York. Vancienne New York. 

In the first examples, the words Dieu, Mars, Pegase, New 
York, are used only for the sake of their signification. In the 
last, on the contrary, they are used with regard to the extent 
of that signification ; hence, no article with the former, and the 
article with the latter. 

149. Sometimes, in imitation of the Italians, the French 
join the article to the names of painters, poets, actors, and 
actresses of that nation ; but they do it only by an elliptical mode 
of expression ; there is always a common noun understood ; 
so we say, 

LaMalaspine, for La Contessa Malaspine. 

LeTasse, •' 11 poetaT&sso. 

Formerly, the same mode of expression was used with the 
name of some of our actresses with an idea of contempt or 
degradation ; it was then customary to say ; 

Mrs. Lemaure sings like a nightin- La Lemaure chante comme un ros- 

gale. signol. 

That is a trick played by Mrs. Gaus- C'est un tour joue par La Gaussin. 

sin. 

But now, among well bred people, this mode of expression is 
no longer in use, and would show a want of education in those 
who should employ it. 

150. The article is seldom used before a noun after an adverb 
or word of quantity, and that word of quantity is always itself 
followed by the preposition of, de ; as, 

How many apples have you bought ? Combien de pommes avez vous ache- 

te/ 
He has as much courage as yourself. II a autant de courage que vous. 
A multitude of persons were drown- Une multitude de personnes furent 
ed. noyees. 

151. Exceptions. Bien, as an adverb, is followed by the 
preposition of, and the article ; as, 

Many people have perished. Bien des gens ont peri. 

She is very kind. Elle a bien de la bonte. 



ARTICLE. 51 

152. Plusieurs is followed by the noun without either pre- 
position or article when used as an adjective ; but when used 
as an adverb it follows the general rule, and takes de after it ; 
as, 

Several of my friends. Plusieurs de mes amis. 

Several persons have told me. Plusieurs personnes m'on dit. 

Tout, followed by a noun used definitely, requires that noun to 
be preceded by the definite article ; as, 

Every body says that you are good. Tout le monde dit que vous etes bon. 

153. Remarks. Among the words of quantity are placed 
plus, moins,pas, point, jamais, which are followed by of, de, 
without the article ; as, 

He has more money than I. H &plus d 'argent que moi. 

He has less good qualities than vi- II a moins de qualites que de vices. 

ces. 

He has no fortune. II n'a pas or point de fortune. 

He never has any money. II n'a jamais d'argent. 

154. It must be observed, that in the preceding sentences, 
where the article is not employed, the nouns which are de- 
prived of it are only taken with regard to their signification, 
and not as to the extent of that signification ; but we say, with 
the article, 

How many of the apples you have Combien des pommes que vous avez 

bought have you still ? achetees, avez-vous encore ? 

A great number of the persons who Un grand nombre des personnes qui 

have been to sea have perished, se sont mises en mer ont peri, 

He has many of the qualities and II a beaucoup des qualites et des vi- 

vices of his father, &c, ces de son pere, 

because, in these sentences, the words pommes, personnes, qual- 
ites, vices are restricted by the propositions which follow them, 
and are consequently definite. 

155. The article is not used before nouns expressing the 
quality of a preceding noun, although it is expressed in Eng- 
lish in similar cases ; as, 

Ulysses, the father of Telemachus. Ulysse, phre de Telemaque. 
The Duke of York, the heir of the Le Due d'York, hdritier du Trone. 
crown. 

156. In English, the adjective a or an is placed before 
nouns of measure, weight, and purchase ; but in French, the 
article le, la, or les is used in its stead ; as, 



52 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Rye is sold for fifty cents a bushel. Le seigle se vend cinquante sols le 

boisseau. 
Sugar is worth ten cents a pound. Le sucre vaut dix sols la livre. 
Cider costs one dollar a gallon. Le cidre coute une gourde le gallon. 

It is more than thirty cents for the C'est plus de trente sols les deux 
two bottles. bouteilles. 

157. Remark. When speaking of time, we say, 

He receives ten shillings a week. II regoit dix shellings par semaine. 

It would be a fault to say, la semaine. 

1 58. In English, when the adverbs more or less are repeated 
to form a comparison, they must be preceded by the article the ; 
but, in French, the article is sometimes omitted, and some- 
times not ; so we say, 

The more we study, the less we Plus nous etudions, mains nous ap- 
learn. prenons. 

159. But before the same adverbs in the following sen- 
tences ; 

Of all these ladies, your sister was De toutes ces dames, votre sceur 
the most distressed, etait la plus affligee, 

160. The article is used, and in the feminine, because there 
is a word understood, dame, which, being feminine, commands 
the article to be of the same gender ; 

Your sister does not cry, even when Votre scsur ne pleure pas, meme 
she is the most distressed, quand elle est le plus affligee, 

The article is used in the masculine, because we express 
only a quality in the highest degree without any idea of com- 
parison with any other object ; therefore this locution, le plus 
affligee, is a sort of adverbial expression, and le plus, modifying 
the adjective, must remain invariable. 

161. Le plus, le moins, le mieux, the most, the less, the best, 
are always invariable when they relate to a verb or an adverb, 
because then they form an adverbial expression ; as, 

Racine and Boileau are the poets Racine et Boileau sont les poetes 
who write the best, who express qui ecrivent le mieux, qui s'expri- 
themselves the most nobly. ment le plus noblement. 

Le mieux, le plus, refer to the verb ecrivent and to the ad- 
verb noblement, and not to Boileau and Racine. 

162. The article must be repeated before two or more 



ARTICLE, 



53 



adjectives united by the conjunction (and) when they do not 
qualify the same noun ; as, 

The young and the old soldier. Le jeune et le vieux soldat. 

The great and the small apartment. Le grand et le petit appartement. 

These phrases are elliptical, and mean 

Le vieux soldat et le jeune soldat. 

Le grand appartement et le petit appartement. 

There are two nouns and there must be two articles. 

163. But we say, 

The old and brave soldier. Le vieux et brave soldat. 

The great and beautiful apartment. Le grand et bel appartement. 

Because there is now but one soldier and one apartment, 
therefore a single determinative is necessary. 



A TABLE OF THE SAME WORDS EMPLOYED. 



With the Article. 

The writings of Cicero are full of 

the soundest ideas. 
Les ecrits de Ciceron sont pleins des 
idees les plus saines. 
(Restrictive sense of the word 
ideas, used in reference to the 
extent of its signification.) 

Divest yourself of the prejudices of 

childhood. 
Defaites vous des prejuges de l'en- 
fance. 

(Individual sense, restrictive of 
the extent of the signification 
of the word prljuge's applied to 
those of infancy only.) 

The different kinds of animals that 

are upon the earth. 
Les differentes especes des animaux 
qui sont sur la terre. 
(Individual sense applied to a 
whole species, the whole ex- 
tent of the signification of the 
word animaux.) 

Enter into the details of the rules of 

a good grammar. 
Entrez dans les details des regies 

d'une bonne grammaire. 

5 # 



Without the Article. 

The writings of Cicero are full of 

sound ideas. 
Les ecrits de Ciceron sont pleins 
d'idees saines. 

(Indefinite sense of the words 
sound ideas without reference 
to the extent of their significa- 
tion ; then a mere qualification.) 

Have no prejudice with regard to 

this question. 
N'ayez point de prejuges sur cette 
question. 

(Sense vague and indefinite, of the 
word prejuge's; no reference as 
to the extent of its meaning.) 

There are different kinds of animals 

upon the earth. 
II y a differentes especes d'animaux 
sur la terre. 

(The word animaux used only to 
qualify especes, employed in- 
definitely without regard to the 
extent of its signification.) 

He enters into a long detail of frivo- 
lous rules. 

II entre dans un long detail de regies 
frivoles. 



54 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



(Individual sense restricting the 
meaning of the word regies, to 
those of a good grammar. Defi- 
nite.) 

He affects circumlocutions. 
II cherche des detours. 

(Partitive sense without an adjec- 
tive before the noun.) 

Avoid the air of affectation. 

Evitez l'air de /'affectation. 

(Individual sense reducing the 
meaning of the word air to that 
of affectation alone. Definite.) 



He loads his memory with the 

verses of Virgil and the phrases 

of Cicero. 

II se charge la memoire des vers de 

Virgile et des phrases de Ciceron. 

(Individual sense in which the 

words vers and phrases are 

limited to those of Virgil and 

Cicero. Definite.) 

Essays supported by strong expres- 
sions. 
Disco urs soutenu par des expres- 
sions fortes. 
(Partitive sense, the adjective 

placed after the noun.) 
Remark. When the adjective 
comes after the noun, as the noun 
signifies by itself a real being or a 
metaphorical being taken by imita- 
tion as a real one should be, that 
noun presents at once to the mind 
an idea of individuality, of an iso- 
lated being existing of itself. 



He has collected precepts of moral- 
ity. 

II a receuilli des preceptes pour la 
morale. 
(Partitive sense, individual.) 

Make use of the tokens we agreed 

upon. 
Servez vous des signes dont nous 
sommes convenus. 
(Positive, definite expression, 
signes meaning those we agreed 
upon and no others.) 



(The words regies frivoles used 
adjectively to qualify details ; 
indefinite.) 

He affects long circumlocutions. 
II cherche de longs detours. 

(Partitive sense with an adjective 
before the noun.) 

Avoid all that has an air of affecta- 
tion. 

Evitez tout ce qui a un air ^'affec- 
tation. 

(Indefinite sense in which air 
means any air (vague) and affec- 
tation only qualifies that noun.) 

He loads his memory with insipid 

verses and phrases. 
II se charge la memoire de vers et 

de phrases insipides. 

(Vague and indefinite sentence, in 
which the words vers and phrases 
are used without any regard 
to the extent of their significa- 
tion ; they are insipid, but whose 
are they ? Indefinite.) 

Essays supported by lively expres- 
sions. 
Discours soutenu par de vives ex- 
pressions. 
(Partitive sense, the adjective 

placed before the noun.) 
Remark. When the adjective 
precedes the noun, it presents at 
once to the mind an idea of qualifi- 
cation, unless the adjective serves 
with its noun, to create an individ- 
ual meaning, as in this sentence : 
It is the opinion of ancient philoso- 
phers, C'est l'opinion des anciens 
philosophes. Ancient philosophers 
forms but one single idea. 

A collection of precepts in morals. 

Receuil de preceptes de morale. 
(Sense of sort, qualifying collec- 
tion in a vague and indefinite 
manner.) 

Let us use tokens to understand 

each other. 
Servons nous de signes pour nous 
entendre. 

(Vague and indefinite expression, 
by which the mind remains in 
doubt as to the signes to be 
used.) 



ARTICLE, 



55 



Learning has always been the object 
of the esteem, praise, and admira- 
tion of man. 
Le savoir a toujours ete l'objet de 
/'estime, des louanges et de /'ad- 
miration des hommes. 
(Definite, precise meaning of the 
words estime, louanges, admira- 
tion, confined to those of man.) 

The riches of the mind can only be 

acquired by study. 
Les richesses de /'esprit ne peuvent 
s'acquerir que par l'etude. 
(Definite meaning of the word 
mind, which is here personified, 
and modifies richesses so as to 
limit the extent of its significa- 
tion.) 

The gifts of fortune are uncertain. 
Les dons de la fortune sont uncer- 

tains. 

(Sense undivided.) 

The connexion of proofs makes 

them please and persuade. 
L'enchainement des preuves fait qu' 

elles plaisent et qu'elles persua- 

dent. 

(Sense individual.) 

It is by meditation upon what we 
read that we acquire fresh know- 
ledge. 

C'est par la meditation sur ce qu'on 
lit qu'on acquiert des connoissan- 
ces nouvelles. 

(Partitive sense in which the noun 
comes before the adjective.) 

The advantages of memory. 
Les avantages de la me moire. 
(Sense individual.) 

The memory of facts is the most 

showy. 
La memoire des facts est la plus 

brillante. 

(Sense individual, definite.) 

The aim of good masters should be 
to cultivate the minds and reason 
of their pupils. 
Le but des bons maitres doit etre de 
cultiver l'esprit et la raison de 
leurs eleves. 

(Sense individual, which the two 
words bons maitres serve to ex- 
press.) 



It is an object of praise, esteem, and 

admiration. 
C'est un objet de louange, (/'estime, 
et (/'admiration. 

(Vague expression, which does 
not indicate the extent of the 
meaning of the words louange, 
estime, &c.) 

There is in Peru a prodigious abun- 
dance of useless riches. 
II y a au Perou une prodigieuse 
abondance de richesses inutiles. 
(Vague and indefinite meaning, in 
which richesses inutiles only 
qualifies abondance, without re- 
gard to the extent of its signifi- 
cation.) 

Gifts of fortune. 
Des dons de fortune. 

(Sense of sort used adjectively.) 

There is in this book an admirable 
connexion of solid proofs. 

II y a dans ce livre un admirable 
enchainement de preuves solides. 
(Sense of sort used adjectively.) 

It is by meditation that we acquire 
fresh knowledge. 

C'est par la meditation que Ton ac- 
quiert de nouvelles connoissances. 
(Partitive sense, in which the ad- 
jective comes before the noun.) 



There are different kinds of memory. 
II y a differentes sortes de memoire. 
(Sense of sort.) 

He has only a memory of facts. 
II n'a qu'une memoire de faits. 
(Qualificative expression, indefi- 
nite.) 

He has an air of pedantry, that 

shocks you at first sight. 
II y a un air de maitre qui choque 

au premier coup d'oeil. 

(Sense of qualification, indefinite.) 



56 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



The taste of mankind is liable to 
great changes. 

Le gout des hommes est sujet a bien 
des vicissitudes. 

(Sense individual ; what is said of 
men in general being applicable 
to each man individually.) 

He has no need of the lessons you 

wish to give him. 
II n'a pas besoin des legons que vous 

voulez lui donner. 

(Individual sense. Definite.) 

Spain, France, England. 
Zi'Espagne, la France, Z'Angleterre. 
(Definite.) 



The island of Japan. 
L'lle du Japon. 

(Name of a distant country, always 

used with the article.) 

He comes from China. 
II vient de la Chine. 

(Name of distant country, used 
with the article.) 

The extent of Persia. 
L'etendue de la Perse. 

(Name of a distant country, always 
preceded by the article.) 

He lives in Peru, Japan, China, 
East or West Indies, the United 
States, Brazil, &c. 
II vit au Perou, au Japon, a la 
Chine, aux Indes orientales, aux 
Indes occidentales, aux Etats 
Unis, au Bresil, &c. 
(Names of distant countries, al- 
ways used with the articles, 
even when expressing the place 
of residence.) 

The politeness of France. 

La politesse de la France. 

(Sense definite, meaning the po- 
liteness of the whole country 
called France.) 

The circumference of Ireland. 
La circonference de Z'lrlande. 

The interests of Spain. 
Les interets de Z'Espagne. 
(Same meaning as above.) 

The discovery of the art of printing 
is attributed to Germany. 



Society of chosen men. 
Societe d'hommes choisis. 

(Adjective sense, hommes choisis 
qualifying the word sociiti. 



He has no need of lessons. 

II n'a pas besoin de lemons. 

(Adjective sense, le$ons qualify- 
ing the word besoin. Indefi- 
nite.) 

The kingdoms of France, Spain, 

England. 
Les royaumes de France, d'Espagne, 

d'Angleterre. 

(Qualificative.) 

The island of Corfou. 
L'ile de Corfu. 

(Noun of country, used without 
the article.) 

He comes from Italy. 
II vient d'ltalie. 

(Noun of country not far off, used 
without the article.) 

He is in Persia. 
II est en Perse. 

(Noun of country preceded by 
en.) 

He lives in Italy, in England, in 

Malta, in Paris, &c. 
II demeure en Italie, en Angleterre, 
a Malte, a Paris, &c. 
(Nouns of countries always used 
without the article, expressing 
a place of residence. 



The wines of France. 

Les vins de France. 

(Adjective expression, meaning 
only that the wines are French, 
and not Spanish, German, &c.) 

Irish, linen. 
Toile d'lrlande. 

Spanish wool. 
Laines eTEspagne. 

(Same meaning as above.) 

The empire of Germany is divided 
into an infinity of small States. 



ARTICLE. 



57 



La decouverte de /'imprimerie est 

attribute a /'Allemagne. 

(Imprimerie used in the whole ex- 
tent of its signification, Alle- 
magne, personified expression, 
definite.) 

He comes from the French Flan- 
ders. 

II vient de la Flandre Frangaise. 
(Definite.) 



The water of the Rhine. 

L'eau du Rhine. 

The water of the sea is blue. 

L'eau de la mer est bleue. 

(Definite expressions, in which 
the word eau is applied to the 
whole amount of water con- 
tained in the Rhine and the 
sea.) 



L'empire J'Allemagne est divise en 
une infinite de petits etats. 
(Allemagne, used to qualify empire 
petits itats used to qualify in- 
finite" ; adjective meaning, indefi- 
nite.) 

He comes from Flanders. 

II vient de Flandre. 

(Indefinite, and one of those names 
of country which do not take 
the article, when preceded by 
'coming from'.) 

Seine water. 

Eau de Seine. 

Salt-water fish. 

Poisson de mer. 

(Adjective expression, meaning 
that we do not mean the water 
of any other river than the 
Seine, and any other fish than 
those of the sea.) 



The God of the Christians is good God is good and merciful. 

and merciful. 
Le Dieu des Chretians est bon et Dieu est bon et misericordieux. 

misericordieux. 
The Jupiter of the pagans was the 

greatest of gods. 
Le Jupiter des payens etait le plus 

grand des dieux. 

(Nouns of divinity used restric- 
tively, definite.) 



Jupiter was the greatest of gods. 
Jupiter etait le plus grand des dieux. 
(Nouns of divinity, used without 
restriction, classed among prop- 
er names.) 



In order to render this table complete, it would be necessary 
to add a great number of examples to those already given, but 
the cases which remain to be illustrated present no difficulty. 

We will give now a list of nouns which are joined to verbs 
without the article, making with them but a single and indivisi- 
ble sense. 

TABLE OF NOUNS USED WITHOUT THE ARTICLE, AFTER 
A VERB OF WHICH THEY ARE THE COMPLEMENT. 



Avoir 



faim, soif, chaud, froid 

dessein 
compassion 
\ honte 
coutume 
mal 
besoin 
_envie, &c. 



to be hungry, thirsty, warm, cold, 

&c. 
to intend 

to have compassion, to pity 
to be ashamed 
to be in the habit 
to have pain 
to want 
to wish, &c. 



58 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



Chercher < 


fortune 


to seek fortune 


malheur, &c. 


to seek a quarrel 


Courir 4 


fortune 
risque 


to run after fortune 
to risk 


j 


'raison 


to challenge 


DemanderJ 


vengeance 


to ask vengeance 


justice, pardon 


to ask for justice, pardon 


i 


grace, &c. 


to supplicate 


Dire ! 


vrai, faux 


to tell the truth, a falsehood 


matines, vespres, &c. 


to say matins, vespers 




"prise 


to give one's enemy an advantage 




jour 


to appoint a day 


Donner < 


parole 
avis, caution 


to give word. 

to inform, to caution 




quittance 


to give a receipt 




.atteinte, &c. 


to hurt 


Echapper 


belle 


to make a narrow escape 




" raison 


to hear reason 


Entendre * 


! raillerie 


to take a joke well 




^malice 


to find out some wit in a throng 




vie qui dure 


to live within compass 




bonne chere 


to feast 




envie 


to raise envy 




reflexion 


to reflect 




honte 


to disgrace one 




honneur 


to do honor 




peur 


to affright 




plaisir 


to do a pleasure 




cas de quelqu'un 


to value somebody 


Faire 


alliance 


to make an alliance 




marche 


to conclude a bargain 




argent de tout 


to raise money out of any thing 




provision 


to provide with 




semblant 


to feign 




route 


to be bound to 




front 


to face 




face 


to face 




difficulte 


to make a scruple 




.faillite, &c. 


to fail 


Gagner 


gros 


to make large profits 


Mettre 


i ordre (a ses affaire) 
^fin, &c. 


to settle (one's business) 
to put a stop 




"vrai 


to speak the truth 


Parler 4 


raison 


to talk reason 


bons sens 


to talk with common sense 




.Frangais, Anglais, &c. 


to speak French, English, &c. 




"envie 


to envy 




temoignage 


to testify 


Porter < 


coup 
bonheur 


to strike 

to bring good luck 




malheur 


to bring ill luck 




_ compassion 


to sympathize 




" garde 


to take care 




patience 


to wait 


Prendre « 


seance 
medecine 


to sit 

to take some medicine 




conge 


to take leave 




_conseil, &c. 


to consult some body 



ARTICLE. 59 

f service to assist 

p , J visite to pay a visit 

itendre < gorge t0 disgorge 

(_ amour pour amour, &c. to give love for love 

C lire to know how to read 

Sayoir <vivre " '• live 

t chanter, &c. " " sing 

f parole to keep one's word 

Ton • J prison to keep gaol 

iemr ] ferme to stand firm 

l_bon, &c. to resist 

164. There are nouns, also, which are employed with a 
preposition and without the article. They are used then in ref- 
erence to their signification alone, and not to the extent of it. 
We have already spoken of these nouns, but think it necessary 
to add some few more examples ; as, 

I will change these stones into Je changerai ces pierres en pains. 

loaves. 

The education of Rousseau must not L'education de Rousseau ne doit 

be taken as a model. pas etre prise pour module. 

I will go to Rome. J'irai a Rome. 

He received me with open arms. II me regut a bras ouverts. 

He has arrived in safety at mid- II est arrive a bon port a minuit. 

night. 

To live without bread, on a pound Vivre sans pain, avec une livre de 

of bread, on a little bread. pain, d'un pen de pain. 

In all these sentences, the nouns are taken in reference to 
their signification alone, and therefore have no article before 
them ; as well as in the following : 
I have a knave of a brother. J'ai un coquin de fibre. 

(Elliptical sentence, which means, — 

Which is of the species of a broth- Qui est de Vesp&ce defr&re.) 
er. 

An honest father. Un honnete homme dep&re. 

(Elliptical sense, meaning, — 

An honest man, having the quality Un honnete homme ay ant la qualiti 
of a father. de pere.) 

These constructions, as well as all similar ones, are in 
conformity with the rules already laid down, by the means of 
the ellipsis. 

The following expressions, 



60 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

To act by feeling, Agir par sentiment, 

To speak with wit, Parler avec esprit, 

To make a graceful appearance, Representer avec gr dee, 

To act with passion, Agir par colere, 

To act by spite, Agir par depit, 

To act by love, Agir par amour, 

are adverbial ; and the nouns, being used adjectively with the 
prepositions, are indefinite ; therefore, they admit of no ar- 
ticle. 



OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 

165. The Substantive is a word w 7 hich represents a being, 
or an object, or an idea, or a feeling, whatever it may be, exist- 
ing in reality, or only by the power of our mind. 

166. The substantive is also called Noun, because it is used 
to name the persons, things, ideas, or feelings which they rep- 
resent. 

Examples. 
Man, homme, 

Horse, cheval, 

Fish, poisson, 

are nouns representing beings which have the appearance of 
man, horse, and fish. 

Hope, esperance, 

Perfection, perfection, 

Happiness, bonheur, 

are nouns representing ideas and feelings through the operation 
of our minds. 

Tree, arbre, 

Table, table, 

Book, lime, 

are nouns representing objects so designated by the general 
agreement of society. 

167. There are two sorts of substantives ; those which are 
used to designate the whole of the species which they repre- 



SUBSTANTIVE. 61 

sent ; as, homme, cheval, esperance, arbre, are called Common 
Nouns, because they are common to all beings or things of the 
same kind. 

16S. Those which are used only to designate a single indi- 
vidual or thing ; as, Alexandre, Virgile, Paris, Vienne, are 
called Proper Nouns, because they belong to a single individual 
of the species which they represent. 

169. The substantive has two properties, Number and 
Gender. 

170. Number is the property which the noun has to rep- 
resent a unity or a plurality. 

171. Therefore, there are two numbers ; the Singular, 
which represents but a single individual or thing, &c. ; as, 

A man, un homme. 

A tree, un arbre. 

A hope, une esperance. 

and the Plural, which represents more than one individual or 
thing, &c. ; as, 

Men, les hommes. 

Two trees, deux arbres. 

Hopes, les esperances. 

172. Among nouns, the generality may be used in either num- 
ber ; but there are some few which have no plural, and others 
which have no singular. We will speak of them hereafter. 

173. Gender is the property which a noun has to represent 
a distinction between the two sexes. 

174. There are, consequently, two genders ; the Mascu- 
line, which belongs to man and the males among animals, and 
the Feminine, which belongs to females in general ; as, 

Man, homme, 

Lion, lion, 

are masculine, because they represent males. 

Woman, femme, 

Mare, jument, 

are feminine, because they represent females. 
6 



62 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

175. By imitation, the nouns which represent objects or 
ideas which are neither male nor female, have received one or 
the other of these two qualifications, and some of them are 
sometimes masculine and sometimes feminine, according to 
their signification. The distinction of the genders in those 
nouns is one of the greatest difficulties of the French language 
for foreigners. We have already, at the beginning of this 
Grammar, given a complete system of the classification of 
nouns ; but in most cases the exceptions are so numerous, that 
it is always prudent not to trust memory alone, and to consult 
a good dictionary. 

176. We see, then, that the nouns which are neuter in Eng- 
lish have not the same qualification in French, which is deprived 
of such a gender. 

177. To mark the difference in sexes, males and females are 
sometimes called by different names ; as, 

Masculine. Feminine. 

Homme, man. Femme, woman. 

Cheval, horse. Jument, mare. 

Taureau, bull. Vache, cow. 

178. Sometimes the only distinction between them is in their 
termination ; as, 

Masculine. Feminine. 

Lion, lion. Lionne, lioness. 

Chien, dog. Chienne, bitch. 

Chat, cat. Chatte, cat. 

This is the best designation, because it shows at once what 
we intend to speak of. 

179. But often we use the same word to express the male 
and female ; as, 

Partridge, Perdrix. (male and female.) 

Eagle, Aigle. " " 

Carp, Carpe. " " 

Pike, Brocket. " " 

This mode is quite an imperfection in the language, but by 
consulting the article on genders, this difficulty is easily reme- 
died. 



^ SUBSTANTIVE. 63 

180. As to nouns which should be neuter in English, their 
gender is usually arbitrary ; so 

Book, Livre, Table, Table, 

Hat, Chapeau, Song, Chanson, 

Glass, Verre, Lamp, Lampe, 

Courage, Courage, Anger, Colere, 

are masculine. are feminine. 

although they have no connexion with either sex. 

181. We have said, that among this class of nouns, some 
were alternately masculine and feminine according to their 
signification. The dictionary is the best guide to show how to 
apply the gender right. We will now give a list of the most 
conspicuous among the nouns which keep the same significa- 
tion and are used in both genders. 

182. Amour, love, is always masculine in the singular, and 
feminine in the plural, unless, in this latter case, it is used to 
signify those little genii who, according to mythology, always 
followed in the train of Venus, where it remains masculine 
in the plural also. 

183. Automne, autumn, is of either gender, but is more 
generally used in the feminine in prose. 

184. Chose, thing, is always feminine, unless preceded by 
quelque, some, when it becomes masculine. 

That is something good, C'est quelque chose de bon (masc). 

In this case it is no longer a noun, the expression, quelque 
chose, being an indefinite pronoun (which is always masculine). 

185. Comte, duche, are masculine, but we say, une 
Comte-pairie, une duche-pairie, which means a peerage which 
has the title of County or Duchy ; pairie, peerage, being femi- 
nine, the compound word keeps the same gender. For the 
same reason we say, une Vi-comte, la Franche-comte. 

186. Couple, couple, is feminine when it signifies two things 
or individuals coupled together, without regard to sexes ; as, 

A couple of eggs, Une couple d'ceufs. 

A couple of mules, Une couple de mules. 

meaning two eggs, two mules. But this word becomes mas- 
culine when applied to two individuals of different sexes, and 



64 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

thus means a pair ; therefore, in speaking of a man and his 
wife, who are handsome, we say, 

It is a fine couple, C'est un beau couple. 

187. GertSj people. This word in the plural is masculine 
when followed by an adjective ; as, 

They are happy people, Ce sont des gens heureuoc. 

188. But it is feminine when preceded by an adjective ; as, 
They are old people. Ce sont de vieilles gens. 

189. With tout, all, it is masculine, if that adjective is 
alone ; as, 

All honest people, Tous les gens de bien. 

190. When tout is followed by another adjective, gens is 
masculine, provided that adjective does not change its ter- 
mination in the feminine ; as, 

All honest people, Tous les honn6tes gens. 

191. But it is feminine when the adjective changes its ter- 
mination ; as, 

All the old people, Toutes les vieilles gens. 

192. However, usage requires, in order to show its despo- 
tism, that the pronouns and adjectives which refer to that word 
should be in the masculine whenever they are placed after it ; 
as, 

Old people are troublesome, they Les vieilles gens sont ennuyeux, Us 
are good for nothing. ne sont bons a rien. 

193. Delict^ delight, is masculine in the singular and femi- 
nine in the plural ; as, 

A pure delight, Un pur delice. 

Pure delights. De pures delices. 

194. Orgue, organ. This word follows the same rule. 

195. Foudre, thunder, is always feminine in ordinary style ; 
as, 

The thunder has fallen, La foudre est tombee. 

But in elevated style it becomes masculine ; and we say, 

A thunderbolt of war. Un foudre de guerre. 



SUBSTANTIVE. 65 

196. Personne, a person, used as a noun is always femi- 
nine, but it is masculine when used as a pronoun, as, personne, 
nobody. 

We shall have occasion to add some nouns to this list and 
say more about them. 

All the indications relating to genders will be found in a 
special notice at the beginning of this Grammar, but we per- 
sist in asserting that a dictionary is the best and surest guide. 



OF NUMBER IN SUBSTANTIVES. 

197. Number, in nouns, is the property which they have of 
denoting either one or several persons or things. 

198. In the first case they are said to be in the singular ; as, 
a man, a table, &c, un homme, une table, &c. 

199. In the second, they are said to be in the plural ; as, 
men, tables, les hommes, les tables. 

200. Proper names, which present to the mind the idea of 
a single individual or thing, have, generally, no plural ; as, 
Washington, Napoleon, &c, London, Paris, &c. ; but we 
may use in the plural, proper names of persons, when we 
apply them to all persons who resemble those who had them ; 
thus we say properly, 

Nature produces but few such men La nature ne produit que rarement 
as Washington, Napoleon. des Washingtons, des Napolions. 

In such cases proper names become common. 



FORMATION OF THE PLURAL IN NOUNS. 

201. 1. There are nouns whose plural is similar to the 
singular ; they are those which end in the singular with s, x, z ; 
so we say, 

L'avis, les avis, le choix, les choix, The advice, advices, the choice, 
le nez, les nez. choices, the nose, noses. 

202. 2. Nouns ending in au, eau, en, ceu, ieu, ou, form their 
plural by the addition of an x ; as, 

6* 



66 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Le joyau, les joyaux, Peau, les The jewel, the jewels, the water, 

eaux, le jeu, les jeux, le vceu, the waters, the play, the plays, 

les vceux, l'essieu, les essieux, the vow, the vows, the axle-tree, 

le chou, les choux. the axle-trees, the cabbage, the 



The nouns, nail, clou, hole, trou, male-cat, matou, cent, 
sou , take an s in the plural. 

203. 3. The nouns ending in al, ail, change their termina- 
tion into aux in the plural ; as, 

Animal, animaux, travail, travaux, Animal, animals, work, works, 
bail, baux. lease, leases. 

But there are some of these terminations which only take 
an 5 in the plural ; as, ball, bal, pale, pal, callosity, cal, 
treat, regal, place, local, carnival, carnaval, take an s in 
the plural ; as, bah, pals, cals, &c. ; and attire, attirail, 
capuchin, camail, detail, detail, fan, eventail scarecrow, 
epouvantail, rudder, gouvernail, mall, mail, gate, portail, 
seraglio, serail, make in the plural, attirails, camails, &c. ; 
trave, travail, a machine to attach horses when shod, makes 
travails in the plural ; sheepfold, bercail, has no plural ; cattle, 
betail, also has none ; it is in the plural expressed by bestiaux, 
which has no singular. But, as I have already said, it is 
necessary to resort to a good dictionary. 

204. 4. Forefather, a'ieul, heaven, del, eye, ceil, make 
their plurals thus, aieux, cieux, yeux ; but we say, des dels de 
lit, testers of a bed ; des a'ieuls, grandfather and grandmother ; 
dels d'un tableau, the sky of a picture ; ovals, ceils de boeuf. 

205. 5. All nouns which are not included in any of the 
preceding classifications, form their plural by the addition of an 
s, as roads, chemins, tables, tables, merchants, marchands, 
laws, his, diamonds, diamants, accidents, accidents, &c. 

ORTHOGRAPHY OF NOUNS ENDING IN ANT, ENT. 

206. The nouns ending in ant, ent, in the singular, must, in 
all possible cases, keep in the plural the t of the singular ; it 
would be absurd otherwise. Let us suppose that a foreigner 
finds, in writing, the word enfans, children ; according to the 
rule, which says that the plural is formed from the singular 
by the addition of an s, if that foreigner should use that word 



SUBSTANTIVE. 



67 



in the singular, he would commit a barbarism, for in remov- 
ing the 5 from the word enfans it remains en/an, which is no 
French word at all. 

207. We must then write, a diamond, un diamante dia- 
monds, des diamants ; a present, un present, presents, des 
presents ; a glove, un gant, gloves, des gants. 

We insist upon this rule, because a number of grammarians 
pretend that the t may be suppressed in words of more than 
one syllable, although they do keep it in monosyllables, with- 
out any reason whatever for not acting alike in both cases. 

208. The noun, people, gens, the singular of which is very 
seldom used, is the only one that does not keep the t in the 
plural. 

209. The adjective, all, tous, follows the same rule. These 
two exceptions are only the result of habit, the greatest tyrant 
in the construction of language. 



OF THE NOUNS WHICH DO NOT TAKE THE PLURAL. 



210. The nouns which come from foreign languages, and 
keep their foreign terminations, are written in the plural as in 
the singular ; so we must write the following nouns alike in 
both numbers. 



Alibi, 

New paragraph, 

Allelujah, 

Apart, 

Auto-da-fe, 

Ave Maria, 

Deficit, 

Duett, 

Erratum, 

Pass, 

Folios, 

Wash stand, 

Memorandum, 

Pater, 

Why, 

Recto folio, 

If, 



alibi. 

alinea. 

alleluia. 

a part. 

auto-da-fe. 

Ave-Maria. 

deficit. 

duo. 

errata. 

exeat. 

in folio. 

lavabo. 

memento. 

pater. 

pourquoi. 

recto. 

si. 



Solo, 

Trio, 

Quartette, 

Te Deum, 

Verso folio, 

&c, 

Concerto, 

Debit, 

Case, 

Folio, 

An extempore, 

Number, 

Task, 

Petition, 

Quid pro quo, 

Quirk, 

Receipt, 



211. Nevertheless, we write, generally, in 
pianos, des pianos, operas, des operas, zeros. 



solo. 

trio. 

quatnor. 

Te Deum. 

verso. 

et caetera. 

concerto. 

debet. 

factum. 

folio. 

impromptu 

numero. 

pensum. 

placet. 

quiproquo. 

quolibet. 

recepisse. 

the 



plural, 
des zeros, 



68 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

because these nouns are somewhat naturalized French. Habit, 
once more, and no rule, is the cause of this exception. 

212. Proper names of persons, although applied to several 
when they are used only to designate persons by their names, 
do not take the plural ; so we say, 

The two Corneilles. Les deux Corneille. 

The two Racines. Les deux Racine. 

We shall see hereafter when proper names take the plural as 
well as the article. 



OF THE NOUNS WHICH HAVE NO PLURAL. 

213. They are ; First. The names of metals, in their gen- 
eral meaning ; as, gold, Vor, silver, V argent, iron, le fer, cop- 
per, le cuivre, &c. 

214. Secondly. The nouns which designate ordinary vir- 
tues ; as, truth, la foi, charity, la charity sincerity, la sin- 
cerity. 

215. Thirdly. Verbs in the infinitive used as nouns, and 
to which an adjective cannot be joined ; as, raising, le lever, 
retiring, le coucher, drinking, le boire, sleeping, le dormir, 
&c. 

But those, to which an adjective may be joined, have the 
two numbers ; as, dining, le diner, laughing, le rire, &c. 

216. Fourthly. Adjectives used as nouns, and which pre- 
sent to the mind only the idea of a metaphorical object ; as, the 
beautiful, le beau, the true, le vrai, the useful, Vutile, &c. 

217. Fifthly. A series of words, as the following ; 



Absinthium, absinthe. 


Glory, 


gloire. 


Frankincense, encens. 


Fame, 


renommee, 


Eucharisity, eucharistie. 


Purple, 


pourpre. 


Extreme-unction , extreme-onction . 


Thirst, 


soif. 


Esteem, estime. 


Sleep, 


sommeih 


Hunger, faim. 


Rest, 


repos. 


Anger, courroux. 







SUBSTANTIVE. 69 



OF THE NOUNS WHICH HAVE NO SINGULAR. 

218. Several nouns have no singular ; as, 

Ancestors, ancetres. Manners, moeurs. 

Archives, archives. Tears, pleurs. 

Coat of arms, armoiries. Matins, matines. 

Espousals, accordailles. Vespers, vespres. 

Bushes, broussailles. Darkness, tenebres. 

Scissors, ciseaux. Rubbish, decombres. 



TABLE OF NOUNS WHICH ARE SOMETIMES USED IN THE PLU- 
RAL, AND SOMETIMES IN THE SINGULAR ALONE. 

219. These nouns have been represented by some gramma- 
rians as being never used in the plural ; but quotations from 
the best French writers prove the error of this pretension. 
They are eighty-four in number. 

220. Amertume^ bitterness. 

This noun, applied to taste, has in fact no plural, except 

when it means painful feelings and is employed in a figurative 

sense ; as, 

God detaches us from the deceitful Dieu nous detache des trompeuses 

pleasures of life by the salutary douceurs de la vie, par les salu- 

troubles which he mingles with taires amertumes qu'il y mele. 
them. 

(Approved by the Academy, Ferrand, Gatel, Laveaux, Le 
Pere Thomassin.) 

221. Ardeur, ardor. 
The Academy says : 

The great heat of summer. Les grandes ardeurs de l'ete. 

That is the only sense in which this word may be used in 
the plural, when employed in its proper meaning. But in po- 
etry it is used both in the singular and plural, in its natural and 
figurative sense. It may be found in Racine, in many in- 
stances ; as, 

" II n'est plus terns, il sait mes ardeurs insensees." 

{Racine, Phiere, Acte III. Scene 1.) 

" Penses-tu que sensible a. l'honneur de Thesee, 
II lui cache Vardeur dont je suis embrasee ? " 

(Racine, Phiere, Acte HE. Scene 5.) 

222. Bassesse, meanness. 

When this word denotes a base, mean feeling, it does not 



70 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

take the plural ; but, if it signify actions resulting from base 

feelings, then it does take the plural ; as, 

Corrupted men are always ready to Les hommes corrompus sont tou- 
commit meannesses. jours prets a commettre des bas- 

sesses. — (Flechier.) 

223. Beaute, beauty. 

Formerly, this word was used indifferently in the singular 
and plural to designate the qualities or the union of qualities 
of a person who excites in us admiration or pleasure ; but 
now, in this case, it is only used in the singular. 

But, if we speak of the details which concur to compose 

the beauty of a whole, or of some parts of a thing which are 

beautiful, although the others are not, the word beaute takes the 

plural ; as, 

It is most difficult to describe all the II est bien difficile de decrire toutes 
beauties which may be found in les beautes qu'il y a dans ce ta- 
this picture. bleau. — (Academy.) 

Beaute is sometimes used also in the plural in an indefinite 

sense ; as, 

There are beauties for all times and H y a des beautis de touts les temps 
countries. et de touts les pays. 

Some grammarians pretend, that, although we may say, 
u The beauties of a work," we cannot say, " The beauties of 
a writer ; " but it is a mistake, both are used. And, in this 
case, the name of the author is always understood for that of 
the work itself ; as, 

" Ses ouvrages, tous pleins d'affreuses verites, 
Etincellent pourtant de sublimes beautis." 

(Boileau, Art Poetique, Chant II.) 

" Ciel, quels nombreux essaims d'innocentes beautis." 

(Racine, Athalie, Acte I. Scene 1.) 

224. Bonte, kindness. 

This word is sometimes used in the plural ; but then it 
means not the quality called bonte, but its effects, its results ; 
as, 

Your family overwhelmed me with Votre famille m'a comble de bontts. 
acts of kindness. 

" Choisissez des sujets dignes de vos bontes." 

( Corneille.) 

" Ou sont, dieux de Jacob, tes antiques bontes ? " 

(Racine, Athalie, Acte IV. Scene 5.) 



SUBSTANTIVE. 71 

225. Bienseance, decency. 

When we wish to speak of a thing which we find useful and 
handy, this word has no plural ; but, if we wish to express 
that which agrees with public opinion, and that which is con- 
formed to established usage and manners, then it is used in 
the plural and in the singular ; as, 

This man does not regard public de- Cet homme n'a pas d'egards pour 

cency. les bienseances. 

One may laugh at the errors of de- On peut rire des erreurs de la bien- 

cency. — (Pascal.) seance. 

The duties of Christianity are Les devoirs du Christianisme en- 

among the exigencies of the pol- trent da.ns les biens6ances da monde 

ished world. poli. — (Massillon.) 

226. Bonheur, happiness. 

The Academy says that this word is generally employed only 

in the singular ; but they ought to have added, that, when it is 

said of an evil which one avoids, or of the good which happens, 

it takes the plural very properly. We read in Mariveaux, — 

With how many trifling instances of De combien de petits bonheurs 
good luck is not the worldly man l'homme du monde n'est il pas 
favored ? entoure ? 

(Ch. Corneille, in his dictionary, says positively that this 
word has a plural.) 

227. Chagrin, sorrow. 

In the meaning of humor, spite, this word has no plural ; 
but when it means sorrow, affliction, displeasure, it takes it ; as, 

Sorrow sits on the throne by the side Les chagrins montent sur le trone 
of kings. et s'assoient a cote des rois. 

(Massillon.) 
" Oui, Lamoignon, je fuis les chagrins de la ville." 

(Boileau, Epitre VI.) 

228. Charite, charity. 

When this word signifies the love we have for God or our 

neighbours, it has no plural ; as, 

The end and laws of religion, the La fin et les lois delareligion, l'ame 
soul of virtue, is charity. des vertus, c'est la chariti. 

(Bossuet.) 

But to express the result of a feeling of pity, either Chris- 
tian or simply moral, by which we help others with our prop- 
erty, our advice, &c, it is used in the plural as well as in the 
singular ; so we say, 

To be charitable. S £ a ! re ^ ch f itS ' 

\ Faire des chantts. 



72 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

229. CoMre, anger. 

Corneille and Moliere have employed this word in the plu- 
ral ; as, 

Pressed on all sides by celestial an- Presse de toutes parts des coteres ce- 
ger. lestes. — (Pomp6e, Acte I. Sc. 1.) 

We say, also, in familiar conversation, — 

I have seen him exhibit all his pas- Je l'ai vu dans toutes ses coleres. 
sion. 

Here colere is used for a fit of passion. 

230. Captivite, captivity. 

Bossuet has employed this word in the plural ; as, 

To raise one's self above the bond- S'elever au-dessus des captivitis ou 
age in which God permits us to dieu permet que nous soyons. 
be. 

But this locution would not be used now. 

231. Clarte, clearness, light. 

This word is sometimes used in the sense of lights, but it is 
only in poetry, or figurative style, and then it takes the plural ; 
as, 

Strange blindness, eternal lights ! Etrange aveuglement, eternelles 

clartis ! — ( Corneille, Polyeucte, 
Acte II. Scene 3.) 

It is for us to sing, us, to whom you C'est a nous de chanter, nous a qui 
reveal your immortal lights. tu reveles les clartis immortelles. 

— (Racine, Athalie, Acte II. Sc. 
9.) 

232. Conduite, conduct. 

This word is used in the plural as a term of hydraulics ; it 
means the pipes which carry water from one place to another. 

233. Connaissance, knowledge, acquaintance. 

This word is employed in the plural in both of these two 
meanings ; as, 

Old acquaintances are better than Les vieilles connaissances valent 

new ones, mieux que les nouvelles. 

In the world, we have many ac- Dans le monde on a beaucoup de 

quaintances and but few friends. connaissances et peu d'amis. 

Demosthenes filled his mind with as Demosthenes se remplit 1 'esprit de 

much knowledge as could embel- toutes les connaissances qui pou- 

lish it. vaient l'embellir. 

234. Consideration, motive, respect. 

Meaning esteem, respect, this word has no plural ; but em- 
ployed to express motives, or the reason why we do such or 
such a thing, it is used in the plural ; as, 



SUBSTANTIVE. 73 

He has been compelled to act thus II a ete oblige d'en ager ainsi par de 
by strong motives, by motives of grandes considerations, par des 
honor and probity. considerations d'honneur et de 

probite. 

235. Contentment, satisfaction. 

Some writers, Racine and Corneille, have used this word 
in the plural, but the Academy proscribes it entirely. 

236. Contrainte, restraint, writ. 

This word is only used in the plural as a technical term of 
law ; as, 
The bearer of a writ. Porteur de contraintes. 

The Academy proscribes it in the plural in any other case. 

237. Coucher, lever, setting, rising. 

Astronomers admit three settings and risings of the stars ; as, 

Cosmic, Le cosmique. 

Achronic, L'achronique. 

Heliac, L'heliaque. 

Thus there is a necessity for those words being used in the 
plural. 

238. Courage, courage. 

This word may be made plural in poetry and elevated style, 
when it means heart, soul, or where it is personified and means 
courageous men ; as, 

This great prince calmed the excited Ce grand prince calma les courages 
souls, &c. emus, &c. — (Bossuet.) 

Great courage is not subdued by ad- Les grands courages ne sont pas 
versity. abattus par le malheur. 

{Academy.) 

239. Curiosite, curiosity. 

This word is used in the plural only to express things rare 
and extraordinary among the products of nature or art ; as, 

This man is fond of varieties. Cet homme est amateur de curiositts. 

240. Douceur, gentleness, sweet words, sweet things, pleasure. 
This word is used in the plural only in the figurative style, 

or when it means words of gallantry ; as, 

To entertain a lady with amorous Dire des douceurs a une femme. 

nonsense. 

To love sweet things. Aimer les douceurs. 

To love the pleasures of society. Aimer les douceurs de la societe. 

241. Desespoir, despair. 

This word is no more used in the plural ; but why ? Cor- 
neille said : 

7 



74 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Et tu verras mes feux, changes en juste horreur, 

Armer mes disespoirs et hater ma fureur. — (Andromede.) 

Et par les dtsespoirs d'une chaste amitie, 
Nous aurions des deux camps tire quelque pitie. 

My displeasures, my fears, my sorroics, say more than the 
same expressions used in the singular ; why then not say, my 
despairs, mes desespoirs 9 We may despair of many things 
as we may hope for them. — ( Voltaire, in his Remarks on 
Corneille.) 

242. Enfance, infancy. 

It is only figuratively and in the acceptation of puerility or 
childishness that this word may be used in the plural. 

243. Espoir, hope. 

This word, which has been used in the plural by Voiture and 
Scudery, is now employed only in the singular. It must be 
observed, that the real meaning of this word relates to things 
which are to come. Racine, however, has employed it in the 
past in the two following verses, but it is a fault. 

Me cherchiez-vous, Madame ? 

Un espoir si charmant, me seroit-il permis ? 

(Andromaque. ) 

To understand the impropriety of this word thus placed, let 
us write this phrase in prose ; 

Madame, me seroit-il permis d'espe*- Madam, may I hope that thou wast 
rer 7 que vous me cherchiez ? seeking me ? 

244. Experience, experience. 

This word is put in the plural only when it means experi- 
ments in natural philosophy and medicine ; as, 

Natural philosophy and medicine La phisique et la medecine ont be- 

require the assistance of experi- soin du secours des experiences 

ments to demonstrate the truth of pour demontrer la verite de leurs 

their principles. principes. — (Fontenelle.) 

245. Esprit, mind, wit, sentiments, spirits. 

This word is used in the plural, when it means senses, sen- 
timents ; as, 

Their minds were moved, timid, Leurs esprits etaient emus, timides, 
frozen, distracted, &c. glaces, egares, &c. 

When it signifies a- person, in regard to his character ; as, 

He is one of our best minds. C'est un de nos meilleurs esprits. 



SUBSTANTIVE. 75 

When it means those who are distinguished by the agreement 
of their conversation or writings ; as, 

Those are men of great pretensions Ce sont de beaux esprits. 
to wit. 

When we speak of spirits, goblins, demons, &c. 

Heavenly spirits. Esprits celestes. 

He is afraid of goblins. II a peur des esprits. 

When we mean those small and light substances which carry- 
life and feeling in the body of animals, and are called 

Vital spirits. Les esprits vitaux. 

And also when applied to liquors in a general sense ; 

Spirits are high now. Les esprits sont chers aujourd'hui. 

When this word means any thing else it does not take the 
plural. 

246. Felicite, felicity. 

This word is rarely used in the plural in prose, because it 
expresses a state of the soul, as tranquillity, wisdom, repose, 
&c. However, the Academy, and most writers, have adopted 
this phrase : 

The felicity of this world is of short Les filiciUs de ce monde sont de 
duration. courte duree. 

But poetry allows the plural freely ; 

Que vos ftlicites, s'il se peut, soient parfaites. 
Let your happiness, if possible, be complete. 

( Voltaire, Zaire, Acte I.) 

Allons apprendre au roi, pour qui vous combattez, 
Mon crime, mes remords, et mes filicitts. 
Let us inform the king, for whom you are righting, of 
My crime, my remorse, and my felicity. — (Id.) 

247. Fierte, pride. 

This word is not used in the plural now. Moliere has said ; 
The display of his pride. Le bruit de ses fiertes. 

But, in spite of his authority, this is considered as a fault by 
grammarians. 

248. Flamme, flame. 

This word, used to express the effect of love, was formed 
used in the plural in poetry, but is no more so now. However, 
Voltaire asks why it should not ; why not say, vosflammes, as we 



76 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

say, vosfeux, vos amours ? No satisfactory reason can be given ; 
it is, then, a mere caprice of the great tyrant in language, usage. 

249. Fureur, fury. 

The Academy did not, formerly, give a single instance of 
this word in the plural, although a number of celebrated wri- 
ters have used it in that number ; we shall adopt this last opin- 
ion as sufficiently warranted by experience ; as, 

Pourquoi demandez vous que ma bouche raconte 
Des princes de mon sang les fureurs et la honte ? 

( Voltaire, Henriade, Chant I.) 

Defendez moi des fureurs de Pharnace. 

{Racine, Mithridate, Acte I., Scene II.) 
A vos fureurs, Oreste s'abandonne. — (Ibid.) 

II n'eut point eu le nom d'Auguste 
Sans cet empire heureux et juste, 
Qui fit oublier ses fureurs. 

(J. B. Rousseau.) 

Besides, the meaning of the word in the plural being some- 
what different from that in the singular, since it denotes rather 
the effects of passion, than its degree, it seems to us that 
employing it in the plural is wise and necessary. The Acad- 
emy of 1839 does not refuse any more the plural to this word.) 

250. Gloire, glory, 

is no longer used in the plural, except as a term employed in 
the art of painting, for pictures representing an open and lighted 
sky, with angels, saints, &c. 

251. Gout, taste. 

When this word means taste in arts, it takes the plural ; as, 

Tastes do not agree. Les gouts ne se ressemblent pas. 

In painting there are as many varie- En peinture, il y a autant de gouts 
ties of tastes as of schools. que d'ecoles. 

Gout also takes the plural, meaning the predilection of the 
soul for certain objects ; 

Nature gave us tastes as dangerous La nature nous a donne des gouts 
to counteract as to satisfy. qu'il est aussi dangereux d'e- 

teindre que de satisfaire. 

In any other case the word gout has no plural. 

252. Haine, hatred, 

has no plural when it expresses passion in general ; but it takes 
it when applied to the feelings of hatred which we have for 
some particular person or object. 



SUBSTANTIVE. 77 

A mistaken word, a doubtful report, Une parole mal interpreted, un 
an ill-founded suspicion, raise, rapport douteux, un soupgon mal 
every day, irreconcilable hatred. fonde, allument, tous les jours, 

des haines irreconciliables. 

(FMchier.) 
Private hatred gave way to general Les haines particulieres cederent a 
animosity. la haine generate. — ( Voltaire. ) 

253. Haleine, breath. 

This word is said of winds, only when they are personified ; 
then it is used by analogy with the breath of man, and is placed 
in both numbers ; as, 

The winds were silent, the softest Les vents se turent, les plus doux 
zephyrs even seemed to keep zephirs meme semblerent retenir 
their breath. leurs haleines. — (Ftnelon.) 

Then the winds kept their breath, Les vents alors retinrent leurhaleine, 
all was calm in nature. tout etait calme dans la nature. 

(Barthilemi.) 

254. Hasard, hazard. 

Poets employ this word in the plural to express the chances 
of war. In any other case it is singular. 

The Academy says, that, speaking of certain games of 
hazard played with dices, certain numbers, which are always 
favorable to the player, are called hazards. 

255. Honte, shame. 

Corneille has said in Pompee (Act V., Scene III.) ; 

Pour reserver sa tete aux hordes d'un supplice. 

To keep his head for the shame of capital punishment. 

And in Radagune (Act. IV., Scene III.) ; 

Vous avez du garder le souvenir 

Des hontes que pour vous j 'avals su prevenir. 

You ought to have retained the memory of the shame, 

The effects of which I had prevented in your behalf. 

On this last verse, Voltaire makes the following remark ; 
" The word honte has no plural, at least, in noble style ; " 
which shows that he does not condemn its use in ordinary 
style. Ferand himself approves of the phrase of La Bruyere ; 

The most brilliant fortune is not La plus brillante fortune ne merite 

worth the trouble I give myself, ni le tourment que je me donne, 

the humiliation, nor the shame ni les humiliations, ni les hontes 

which I receive. que j'essuie. 

256. Hymen, hymen. 

This word is often used in poetry to signify marriage. It is 
also sometimes employed in the same sense even in prose ; 

thus we say, 

7# 



78 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Live under the laws of hymen. Vivre sous les lois de Vhymen. 

When we speak of the god who presided over marriage, it 
is only used in the singular ; but applied to marriage itself, it 
may take the plural ; 

J'ai vu beaucoup d'hymens; aucun I have seen many marriages ; none 
d'eux ne me tente. tempts me. — {La Fontaine.) 

257. Honneur, honor. 

Meaning the feeling of self-esteem, and the right we have to 
that of others, based upon our virtues, and our probity ; or 
expressing the high opinion they have of our honesty, courage, 
intrepidity, honneur is only used in the singular. But, if it 
signifies proofs of respect or civility, dignities, decorations, 
funeral ceremonies, it then takes the plural ; as, 

Do not sacrifice your honor to gain Ne sacrifiez pas votre honneur pour 

social distinctions. arriver aux honneurs. 

Have ambition for honor and not for Ayez de 1'ambition pour Vhonneur 

honors. et non pour les honneurs. 

Never grant distinctions to those N'accordez jamais d" 1 honneurs a ceux 

who have no honor. qui n'ont pas d'honneur. 

258. Inclemence, inclemency. 

Moliere, in the Precieuses Ridicules, has used this word in 
the plural, but it was in a joke. 

Would you, villains, that I should Voudriez-vous, faquins, que j'ex- 
expose my feather to the inclem- posasse mes plumes aux incU- 
ency of the weather ? mences de la saison ? 

259. Indecence, indecency. 

This word is generally used in the singular, but we use it 
in the plural, to express things which are immodest ; 

The last works of Voltaire are so Les derniers ouvrages de Voltaire 

full of indecency and blasphemy, sont si remplis d'indecences et de 

that they have disgraced his old blasphemes, que sa vieillesse en 

age. fut deshonoree. 

260. Indignite, indignity. 

It is only in the meaning of an outrage, an insult, that this 
word takes the plural. 

261. Indiscretion, indiscretion. 

When we speak only of the vice of being indiscreet, the 
singular alone is used ; so, speaking of or to several persons, 
we say, 
Your, their indiscretion. Votre, leur indiscretion. 



SUBSTANTIVE. 79 

But, if we speak of the results of that vice, of acts, or words, 
which are indiscreet, then it takes the plural ; as, 

He is punished for the indiscretions II est puni des indiscretions qu'il a 
which he has committed. commises. 

262. Ignorance, ignorance, 

in the acceptation of a want of knowledge, or science, this 
word has no plural ; but when used for expressing faults com- 
mitted by ignorance, then it takes the plural ; as, 

There are in this book as many II y a dans ce livre autant dHgno- 

faults showing ignorance, as there ranees que de mots. — (Bossuet.) 
are words. 

God has permitted him to fall into Dieu a permis qu'il soit tombe dans 

such a display of ignorance, that des ignorances si grossieres, 

it has brought upon him the con- qu'elles lui ont attire la risee des 

tempt of literary men. gens de lettres. — (Boileau.) 

And the Academy says ; 

This book is full of unpardonable Ce livre est plein d ! 'ignorances im- 
ignorance. pardonnables. 

263. Ignominie, ignominy. 

As the word indignite, in the meaning of outrage, insult, 
ignominie has the plural, but in no other ; so we cannot use 
the plural in this phrase ; 

Time could not destroy the igno- Le temps ne saurait effacer Vigno- 
miny of this action. minie de cette action. 

But we may do it in the following ; 

Jesus Christ has suffered all the Jesus Christ a souffert toutes les 
ignominies which the Jews could ignominies dont les Juifs ont pu 
offer him. l'abreuver. 

264. Injustice, injustice, 

is only said in the plural, when we speak of the results of injus- 
tice itself, and then it has a passive sense. 

I have suffered great injustice from J'ai endure de sa part de grandes 
him. injustices. 

When we mean the feeling opposed to justice, to what is 

right, then it does not take the plural. 

Prosperity, which ought to be the La prosperity, qui devroit etre le 
result of virtuous principles, is prix de la vertu, est trop souvent 
too often that of injustice. celui de Vinjustice. — (Flechier.) 

265. Impudence, impudence. 

When this word designates the vice itself it has no plural ; 
we say of several persons, 



80 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Their impudence. Leur impudence. 

But when this word signifies the actions, the effects of that 
vice, then it may be used in the plural ; as, 

He deserves to be flogged for his II merite d'etre fustige pour ses im- 
impudence. pudences. 

The same observation is applied to the words, Imprudence, 
imprudence, and Michancete, wickedness. 

266. Impudeur, immodesty. 

We must not mistake this word for impudence. Impudeur 
signifies the want of pudor, which is a certain shame, a feeling 
excited by what is not modest and decent. Where impudence 
is an act against modesty, it takes the plural, when it means the 
effects of the vice itself. 

267. Impuissance, inability. 

This word is always singular. The Academy pretends that 
it is used only in speaking of persons, but Flechier, Racine, 
and Voltaire have used it in speaking of things ; as, 

We try to excuse our indifference in Nous cherchons a excuser notre 
the practice of virtue on account froideur dans la pratique de la 
of inability. vertu, sous le pretexte dHmpuis- 

sance. — (Flichier.) 
My lord, I acknowledge the inabili- Seigneur, de mes efforts je connais 
ty of my efforts. Vimpuissance. 

{Racine, Iphigenie.) 
The drama is the result of the ina- Le drame est le resultat de Vimpuis- 
bility of being tragical or comical. sance d'etre tragique ou comique. 

268. Remark. We read, in the Dictionary of the Acade- 
my, that the word impuissance is used more particularly for the 
inability of some persons of bearing children, caused either 
by a vice of organization, or any other cause ; it seems to us 
that they ought to have added, that in this particular meaning 
it is only applied to man ; but when speaking of women una- 
ble to have children, they called them steriles, and not impuis- 
santes. 

269. Innocence, innocence. 

This word is always used in the singular ; as, 

Innocence of life prevents the fear Jj innocence de la vie detruit la fray- 
of death . eur de la mort. — (St. Evremont. ) 

A modern author has said les innocences, but it is a fault. 

270. Ivresse, intoxication. 



SUBSTANTIVE. 81 

This word, never used in the plural when it means drunk- 
enness, takes it in speaking of passions, and it is in this 
figurative sense that J. B. Rousseau says : 

The return of reason soon follows Le reveil suit de pres vos trompeu- 
your deceiving passion. ses ivresses. 

271. Martyre, martyrdom. 

Employed figuratively to express the pains of the body and 
mind, this word is not generally used in the plural ; and, although 
we speak of several saints, we say leur martyre (singular), 
but the plural is elegantly used in this phrase : 

Heretics soon found the way to Les heretiques trouverent bientot le 
avoid being martyrs. moyen de se mettre a l'abri des 

martyres. — (Bossuet.) 

272. Mepris, contempt. 

Speaking of the feeling itself, the singular only is used ; but 
when we mean words or facts which show contempt, then we 
employ the plural ; as, 

I am not disposed to bear your con- Je ne suis pas fait pour sounrir vos 
tempt. m6pris. — (Academy.) 

273. Misere, misery. 

Voltaire, in his remarks on the Horaces of Corneille, notices 
that in poetry this word is a noble expression, which signifies 
misfortune, and not indigence, and that this is the only mean- 
ing in which it is used in the plural ; as, 

1 have lately, without mercy, insulted his misery. 

J'ai tantot sans respect afflige 5a misere. (Racine.) 

My heart from that time partook of your misfortunes. 

Mon cceur des ce moment partagea vos miseres. ( Voltaire.) 

But Voltaire forgets that we use it also in the plural in the 
meaning of trifles ; as, 

He wastes his time in trifles. II perd son temps en miseres. 

274. Ouie, ouies, the hearing, the gills. 

When applied to the sense of hearing, this word is only 
used in the singular ; and only in speaking of the part of 
fishes called gills, does it take the plural. 

275. Pauvrete, poverty. 

This word takes the plural when it signifies certain things 
base, contemptible, foolish, ridiculous, which are said in our 
presence, or seen by us ; as, 



82 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

I have read the satire on woman ; J'ai lu la satyre des femmes ; juste 
good God, what an amount of ciel, que de pauvret6s ! 
nonsense ! (Senece".) 

276. Penchant, inclination. 

In a figurative sense, this word may be used in the plural 
when it is used absolutely, without an object ; as, 

The more we yield to our inclina- Plus nous cedons a nos penchants, 
tions, the more we become their plus nous en devenons esclaves. 
slaves. 

In other cases, it is only used in the singular ; thus, Mar- 
sollier, who has said, 

There are people who have great II y a des personnes qui ont de 
inclinations to vanity, grandes inclinations a la vanite, 

has committed a fault. There cannot be several inclinations 
towards a single passion (vanite). 

277. Rage, rage. 

This word is now employed only in the singular ; although 
Boileau and Corneille have used it in the plural ; but the 
Academy does not give a single instance of its being used in 
that number. 

278. Reconnaissance, gratitude. 

This noun is correctly used in the plural in the following 
acceptation, speaking of war ; as, 

The general has been on an excur- Le general a fait des reconnaissances. 
sion of discovery. 

Speaking of the stage, we say : 

There are in this play many recog- II y a dans cette piece plusieurs re- 
nitions. connaissances. 

Speaking of pawnbroker's tickets, we say : 

Pawnbroker's tickets. Reconnaissances du mont de piete. 

Although we say, 

To acknowledge one's faults, Reconnaitre sesfautes, 

we do not say, 

Make an acknowledgment of one's Faire la reconnaissance de ses 
faults. fautes. 

279. Renommee, fame. 

This word has no plural except in speaking of certain figures 
used in painting ; as, 

There are excellent Famas. Voici d'excellentes Renommhs. 



SUBSTANTIVE. 83 

280. Repos, repose. 

In architecture, this word is used in the plural to designate 

the landing-places in a stair-case ; as, 

The landing-places of this stair-case Les repos de cet escalier ne sont pas 
are not large enough. assez grands. 

It is used, also, in the plural, as a term in music, painting, 

and metaphysics ; as, 

In writings, as well as in paintings, Dans les ouvrages d'esprit et dans 
we must spare some rests. les tableaux, il faut menager des 

repos. 

281. Sante, health. 
We say in the plural : 

To give toasts. Porter des sanUs. 

When personified, we say : 

Persons in delicate health require Les saute" s dedicates demandent des 
care. soins. 

In any other instance it is used in the singular. 

282. Silence, silence. 

This word has no plural, except in music, when we say : 
To observe the rests. Observer les silences. 

283. Tendresse, tenderness. 

We use this word in the plural only when it signifies acts of 

tenderness, but not that feeling itself ; as, 

This person acts kindly towards me. Cette personne me fait des tendres- 

ses. 

284. Vue, sight. 

When this word means the power of seeing it has no plural ; 
in other cases it takes it. 

285. Remark. If the names of virtues and vices have no 
plural in our language, it is because we consider as individuali- 
ties, all that the mind cannot divide into several distinct individ- 
uals, and because those names which the Latins had deified 
have become in our language somewhat proper names ; and, if 
in poetry, and even in prose, we, sometimes, in elevated style, 
employ the plural instead of the singular, it is in order to re- 
store to the words something of the individuality which they 
had lost by their transformation. 

286. We have seen the nouns in which exceptions are 
generally admitted. A few remain which grammarians pretend 
have no plural in any meaning. 



84 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Adolescence, adolescence. Molesse, softness. 

Bile, bile. Noblesse, nobleness. 

Capacite, capacity. Obeissance, obedience. 

Chastete, chastity. Odorat, smell, 

decence, decency. » Presse, idleness. 

Encens, frankincense. Pudeur, pudicity. 

Jeunesse, youth. Superflu, superfluity. 

Misericorde, mercy. Toucher, the touch. 

Morale, morality. 

287. But is this pretension correct ? Cannot all these words 
receive epithets modifying their meaning ? Have we not wise 
youth, and depraved youth 1 Is not bile sometimes yellow or 
black, thick or thin, &c. ? Is not capacity used in the plural in 
many instances ? Do we not say, the capacities of a priest, of a 
man to be a member of our Congress, and so on, for all these 
words ? Are there not several kinds of mercy, obedience, 
morality, idleness, &c. ? Is it not the same in regard to smell 
and touch, which may be more or less acute ? We also say 
correctly, The nobilities of yesterday ; so that we must con- 
clude, from what precedes, that almost all nouns have a plural, 
and the only rule in this respect is to be found in the best au- 
thors ; by following in their steps, faults will always admit of an 
excuse. 



OP COMPOUND NOUNS. 

Of the formation of their Plural. 

288. The compound nouns that have not yet been intro- 
duced into the language as making a single word, that is to say, 
the distinct parts of which are still united by a hyphen, are 
written in the plural in the most irregular manner, and gramma- 
rians are far from agreeing about the rules which ought to regu- 
late them ; but there is a general indication which finds its ap- 
plication in most cases, and may be taken as a sure guide. I 
mean the nature and particular sense of the words of which 
they are composed, and which show easily those that require 
either of the two numbers. 

Such is the general principle ; the application of which will 
be rendered easy by the assistance of the following rules : 



SUBSTANTIVE. 85 

289. 1. When a compound noun is formed of a substantive 

and an adjective, both take the plural ; as, 

A false-key, unefausse-cle. Some false keys, desfausses-cles. 

A freemason, unfranc-maqon. Freemasons, des francs magons. 

Exceptions. 
A blank, Un blanc-seing, Des blanc-seings. 

(Papers signed in blank.) 
A terra plain, Un terre-plein, Des terre-pkins. 

(Places full of earth.) 
A lighthorseman, Un chevau-leger, Des chevau-Ugers. 
A grandmother, Une grand'-mere, Des grand' '-meres. 
A solemn mass, Une grand'-messe, Des grand' -messes. 

In the two first examples, the sense does not allow the use 
of the plural for the words blanc and terre ; in the third, a fan- 
tastic usage refuses to the noun the mark of the plural ; in fine, 
in the two last, the adjective remains unchanged on account of 
euphony in pronunciation. 

290. When, in compound nouns, there is a word which is 

never used by itself, this word is considered as an adjective, 

and takes the plural ; as in, 

Wary-angle, Pie-grieche, Des pies-grieches. 

Were-wolf, Loup-garou, Des loups-garous. 

Gum-gutta, Gomme-gutte, Des gommes-guttes, &c. 

In these examples, the words grieche, garou, and gutte, are 
never used by themselves, and have no sense, unless they are 
joined to the above nouns. 

291. 2. When a compound noun is formed of two substan- 
tives placed in immediate contact with each other, both take 
the mark of the plural ; as, 

Country-town, Un chef-lieu, Des chefs-lieux. 

Wolf-dog, Un chien-loup, Des chiens-loups. 

Cauliflower, Un chou-fleur, Des choux-fleurs , &c. 

It is evident that these locutions may be turned in this way : 
The towns which are chief towns, the dogs which are like 
wolves, the flowers which turn into cabbages, &c. 

Exceptions. 
Fig-pecker, Un bec-figues, Des bec-figues. 

(Birds whose beak pecks figs.) 
Painter's maul-stick, Un appui-main, Des appuis-main. 

(Sticks to lean the hand upon.) 
A hospital for the sick in Paris, Un hotel-dieu, Des hotels-dieu. 

(Places to worship God, or under the patronage of God.) 
A toothless man, Un breche-dents, Des breche-dents. 

(A man who has a breach in his teeth.) 



86 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

292. 3. When a noun is composed of two substantives 
united by a preposition, the first takes the mark of the plural ; 
as, 

A rainbow, Un arc-en-ciel, Des arcs-en-ciel. 

(Bows which are in the skies.) 

A master-piece, Un chef-d'oeuvre, Des cAe/s-d'ceuvre. 

(Works which are chief ones as to their merits.) 

Exceptions. 

Nonsense, Un coq-a-1'ane, Des coq-a-1'ane. 

(Discourses without sense, where one passes from the cock to the ass.) 

Temporary residence, Pied-a-terre, Des pied-a-terre. 

(Places where one puts only his foot on the ground.) 

Face to face, Tete-a-tete, Des tete-a-tete. 

(Interviews during which a person is alone with another.) 

In these sentences the meaning of the words cock, foot, 
head, does not allow them to be placed in the plural. 

293. 4. When a substantive, in a compound noun, is 
joined to a verb, a preposition, or an adverb, the substantive 
alone takes the plural, if there is plurality in the meaning ; so 
we write with an s the following words ; 

A counter-blow, Un contre-coup, Des conlre-coups. 

(Blows in the counter-part.) 

Herald, Avant-coureur, Des avant-coureurs. 

(Runners who run ahead.) 

The latter end of autumn, Arriere-saison, Les arriere-saisons. 

(Seasons which are behind time.) 

294. But we write without an s in the plural, because there 
is no plurality in the idea, the following words ; 

Night-cap, Serre-tete, Des serre-tUe. 

(Caps that keep the head tight.) 

Alarm-clock, Reveille-matin, Des reveille-matin. 
(Clocks which waken in the morning.) 

Counter-poison, Contre-poison, Des contre-poison. 
(Remedies against poison.) 

295. Finally, We write with an s, in the singular as well as 
in the plural, the following nouns, because there is always plu- 
rality in their signification ; 

One or some towels, Un ou des essuye-mams. 

(One or some towels to wipe the hands.) 

One or some snuffers-bearer, Un ou des poite-mouchettes. 
(One or some instruments to hold the snuffers.) 



SUBSTANTIVE. 87 

One or some toothpicks, Un on des cme-dents. 

(A stick to clean one's teeth.) 

One or some keys-bearer, Un ou des porte-cZes. 

(One or some men who carry the keys.) 

296. 5. When a compound noun is formed only of words 
which never vary, as verbs, prepositions, adverbs, none of 
these words takes the mark of the plural ; as, 

Servant-fees, Pour-boire, Des pour-boire. 

A man who never laughs, Un pince-sans-rire, Des pince-sans-rire. 
A skeleton-key, Un passe-partout, Des passe-partout. 

Although these five rules contain what is of general applica- 
tion in the language to compound nouns, it will always be well, 
when a doubt arises in the mind, to refer to a good dictionary, 
as the only sure guide in so complicated a matter. 

297. After having described the substantive in its different 
phases, it remains now to show how to use it as a part of 
speech, what place it occupies, and what its functions are in 
the construction of sentences. 

298. The substantive has three functions in speech ; it is 
either subject, or object, or used in the shape of an apostrophe. 
It is a subject when it represents that which is spoken of, or 
performs the action of the verb ; when we say, 

The horse runs, Le cheval court, 

The horse does not fly, « Le cheval ne vole pas, 

the noun horse is the subject, because, in the first sentence, 
we say, that it runs, and in the second, that it does not fly. 

299. It is to the subject that every thing refers in speech ; 
when we say, 

A man just and firm is not moved Un homme just et ferme n'est e- 

either by the roaring of an irri- branle ni par les clameurs d'une 

tated multitude, or the threats of populace irritee, ni par les me- 

a proud tyrant ; if even the world naces d'un fier tyran ; quand 

was shaken to the centre, and meme le monde bnse s'ecroule- 

reduced to ruins, he would be rai, il en serait frappe, mais non 

struck but not disturbed by it, pas emu, 

the adjectives just and firm modify the subject man, and the 
rest modifies a man just and firm. 

300. The substantive is used in the apostrophe, when it 
designates the thing or person to whom we speak ; as, 



88 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Kings, be attentive. Rois, soyez attentifs. 

Earth, sea, and you heavens, be Terre, mer, et vous cieucc, soyez 
sensible to our claims. sensibles a nos plaintes. 

The substantives, kings, earth, sea, heavens, are used in the 
form of an apostrophe. 

301. We generally address an apostrophe only to living 
beings ; but in oratorical impulses, in fits of passion, we ad- 
dress ourselves to all in creation. Imagination, when excited, 
gives soul, feelings, mind, to every thing. Our best writers 
are full of quotations of this kind. 

Oh ! Hippias ! Hippias ! I shall Oh ! Hippias ! Hippias ! Je ne te 
never see thee again ! Oh, my verrai plus ! Oh, mon cher Hip- 
dear Hippias ! it is I, cruel, and pias ! c'est moi, cruel, impito- 
void of compassion, who taught yable, qui t'ai appris a mepriser 
thee to despise death. Cruel la mort ! Dieux cruels ! vous 
gods ! ye prolonged my life, prolongez ma vie pour me faire 
only that I might see the death of voir la mort d 'Hippias ! Oh ! 
Hippias! Oh, my dear child, cher enfant que j'ai nourri et qui 
whom I had brought up with so m'a coute tant de soins, je ne te 
much care, I shall see thee no verrai plus. Oh ! chere ombre ! 
more ! Oh, dear shade, summon appelle moi sur les bords du Styx. 
me to the banks of the Styx. La lumiere m'est odieuse ; c'est 
The light grows hateful to me ; toi seul, mon cher Hippias, que je 
it is thou only, my dear Hippias, veux revoir. Hippias ! Hippias ! 
whom I wish to see again. Hip- Oh, mon cher Hippias! je ne vis 
pias, Hippias ! Oh, my dear encore que pour rendre a tes cen- 
Hippias ! I live but to pay the dres le dernier devoir, 
last duty to thy ashes ! 

302. The substantive is an object, when it is under the 
control of another word ; in this case it restrains the significa- 
tion of that word. But the substantive may be governed by 
another substantive, an adjective, a verb, or a preposition ; 

The law of God. La hi de Dieu. 

Useful to man. Utile a Vhomme. 

To love one's neighbour. Aimer son prochain. 

At one's father's. Chez son p&re. 

303. The word which governs is called governing; the 
word which is governed is called regimen or object. 

We shall speak of the regimens of adjectives, verbs, and 
prepositions hereafter. We will now confine ourselves to the 
substantive. 

304. In French a substantive cannot be the object of an- 
other substantive without the aid of a preposition, which is 
generally, of, de, but sometimes, to, a, for, pour, and others ; 
as, 



SUBSTANTIVE. 



89 



The difficulty of the enterprise. 
The attention to one's business. 
The taste for pleasure. 



La difficulte e?e,l'entreprise. 
L'attention a ses affaires. 
Le gout pour le plaisir. 



305. Of two substantives, one governing, the other gov- 
erned, the one governing generally comes first. 

The beauty of feelings. 
The violence of passions. 



La beautt des sentiments. 
La violence des passions. 



306. We have used the word generally, because sometimes 
the privilege of inversion changes that order. 

Sometimes substantives change their nature into that of an 
adjective ; in this phrase of Bossuet, 

All was God, except God himself, Tout etait Dieu, excepte Dieu lui- 

meme, 

God, in the first part, is an adjective, and a noun in the 
second. 



OP NUMBER IN THE SUBSTANTIVES WHICH ARE 0BJECTS 
OR REGIMENS OF ANOTHER SUBSTANTIVE. 

307. Substantives immediately governed by another with the 
preposition of, de. 





Singular 




The hand of woman. 
The act of a fool. 
A child's play. 
A horse tail. 
A statue of marble. 


Plural. 


Une main de femme. 
Une action de fou. 
Un jeu d 'enfant. 
Une queue de cheval. 
Une statue de marbre. 


The hands of woman. 
The acts of a fool. 
A child's plays. 
Horse tails. 
Statues of marble. 




Des mains de femme. 
Des actions de fou. 
Des jeux d'enfant 
Des queues de cheval. 
Des statues de marbre 



308. Here the substantives which follow the preposition 
modify the subject designated by the first one, which repre- 
sents the principal idea ; and the words, woman, fool, child, 
&c, used in a vague and indefinite sense, serve less to express 
the idea of the object which they represent, than to qualify 
the substantive with which they are united by the preposition, 
8* 



90 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

of, de ; in fact, a woman's voice is a feminine voice, the action 
of a fool is a foolish action, the play of a child is a childish 
play, &c. 

309. Rule. In all cases similar to the above, and where no 
peculiar reason requires the plural, the substantive employed 
as a regimen or object remains in the singular. 

310. Observation. In conformity with this rule we write, 
Stumps, Des troncs d'arbre, 

with arbre in the singular ; but speaking of trees to be planted 
again, we say, 

Sets of trees, Des pieds d'arbres. 

because here the words pieds d'arbres are taken for the trees 
themselves. 

311. However, it is customary, and the Academy approves 
of it, to write des pieds de giroflee, plants of gillyflower, des 
pieds de basilic, plants of basil, des pieds de marjolaine^ 
plants of marjoram, because these plants, composed of several 
slips, do not present a distinct idea of individuality ; and, be- 
sides, we generally say, de la giroflee, some gillyflower, du 
basilic, some basil, &c. 

312. The rule is equally applicable to compound nouns ; as, 

Des barbes de bouc, (Sort of a plant.) 

Des bees d'ane. (A cabinet-maker's tool.) 

313. Rule. When the substantive, used as a regimen, im- 
plies necessarily the idea of plurality, it must be used in the 
plural ; as, 

A forest of oaks. Une foret de cMnes. 

A couple of horses. Une couple de chevaux. 

A merchant of engravings. Un marchand de gravures. 

314. Observations. 

A merchant or some merchants of Un marchand ou des marchands de 

wine. vin. 

A merchant of rich wines and liquors. Un marchand de vins fins et de li- 
queurs. 

In the first example we write vin in the singular, because 
this word is taken indefinitely, and does not imply the idea of 
plurality ; but in the last, vins is written with an s, because 



SUBSTANTIVE. 91 

the mind is compelled to think of several sorts of wines and 
liquors. 

Let us add, that a wholesale merchant may write on his 
sign, Magasin de vin or de vins, because he, of course, deals 
in more than one sort of wine ; but in using the plural, the 
idea of his trade would be of a more extensive character. 

315. Singular. 

A jelly of apples; Une gelee de pomme. 

Syrup of lemon. Du sirop de limon. 

Olive oil. De l'huile d'olive. 

Plural 

Stewed pears, pigeons. Une compote de poires, de pigeons. 

Marmalade of apricots. Une marmelade d'abricots. 

A dish of chestnuts. Un assiette de marrons. 

Here the preposition and the noun which follows are no 
longer used only to modify the subject of the proposition, but 
they show how it is constituted, or composed, if we may say 
so, and we call this last noun determinative. 

316. Rule. The determinative remains in the singular 
when it concurs with the constitution of the subject by ex- 
traction, as apple, lemon, olive, in the foregoing examples ; 
but it is employed in the plural if the formation of the subject 
takes place by composition. 

Let us explain this rule. There is extraction, when the 
article, which is employed to compose the subject, has changed 
its nature in the compound which it has been used to produce ; 
thus, when we make jelly, syrup, oil, we employ only a part 
of the apples, lemons, and olives ; and neither of those prep- 
arations kept the form, nor the appearance, of those fruits ; in 
these cases we think but little of the individuality of either 
fruit, and their names must remain in the singular. When, on 
the other hand, the article used to form the subject of the 
proposition remains entire, or nearly so, there is no extraction, 
but composition, the idea of individuality becomes striking, re- 
calls to the mind that of plurality for the whole, and the 
determinative must accordingly take the plural ; it is the case 
with the words poires, pigeons, abricots, marrons, which remain 
entire in the composition of the subject, and may be counted 



92 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

one by one ; in the marmelade, the individuals are not so dis- 
tinct, it is true, but the apricots have not entirely changed their 
nature, as in a jelly, syrup, &c. 

Singular. 
A barrel of vinegar. Un barril de vinaigre. 

A bushel of wheat. Un boisseau de bled. 

A bouquet of jasmine. Un bouquet de jasmin. 

Plural. 
A barrel of olives. Un barril d' olives. 

A bushel of beans. Un boisseau de haricots. 

A bouquet of roses. Un bouquet de roses. 

317. Rule. When the first substantive expresses an idea 
of capacity, or agglomeration, the second may be considered 
as being determinative, and always remains in the singular, if it 
specifies a thing which cannot be, or is not usually, counted ; 
in all other cases it always takes the plural. The above ex- 
amples leave no ambiguity about the application of this rule. 

Observations. 

318. The rules which we have just given are not strictly ap- 
plicable, and it is necessary to examine carefully how the deter- 
minative must be understood. In the locution, A juice of 
herbs, unjus oV heroes, the determinative heroes is plural, al- 
though the juice is made by extraction, and the herbs have en- 
tirely changed their nature ; we are induced to do it, not only 
because several herbs enter into its formation, but because 
those herbs are of a different nature. 

319. On the other hand, we write : 

A porridge of beans, Une puree de haricots, 

A cullis of craw-fish, Un coulis d'ecrevisses, 

A pot of preserves, Un pot de confitures, 

because those words, beans, craw-fish, and preserves, in French, 
are most generally used in the plural ; for we do not say, 

I love the bean, the craw-fish, the J'aime le haricot, Vicrevisse, la con- 
preserve, fiture, 

but, 

Les haricots, les icrevisses. les confitures. 

But we write, 

A porridge of potatoes, Un puree de pomme de terre. 



SUBSTANTIVE. 93 

because we say, 

The potato is good, La pomme de terre est bonne. 

320. When an adjective is joined to the determinative, it 
restricts and particularizes its meaning, and consequently dis- 
poses it to take the plural ; thus, although we think it should 
be written, 

I prefer to draw heads of women J'aime mieux dessiner des tetes de 
rather than of men, femme que des tetes d'homme, 

we should employ the plural in two of the following sentences : 

Cannibals used to cut off the heads Les cannibales coupaient les tetes 
of men killed in battle. d'hommes tues sur le champ de 

bataille. 

There are two kinds of rights in Ilya deux especes de droit. 
law. 

There are several breeds of horses. II y a plusieurs especes de chevaux. 

In the second example, the singular is used, because we wish 
to say : 

Law is divided into two classes : Le droit se divise en deux classes : 
public law, and private law. le droit public et le droit prive. 

In the last example, the plural is used, because, ■wo wish to 

say : 

There are horses of several breeds. II y a des chevaux de diffirentes es- 
peces. 

By taking the trouble to analyze the sentences which ap- 
pear doubtful to the mind, it is easy to avoid committing any 
faults. 



OF SUBSTANTIVES WITH THE PREPOSITION o/*, de, BUT 
NOT PRECEDED IMMEDIATELY BY ANOTHER SUBSTAN- 
TIVE. 

321. O/, preceded by an adjective or a past participle ; as ? 

Singular. 

A child full of good disposition. Un enfant plein de bonne volonti. 

A prince thirsting for fame. Un prince altere de renommee. 

A painter full of talent. Un peintre rempli de talent. 



94 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Plural. 
A man full of vices. Un homme plein de ddfauts. 

An author craving applause. Un auteur insatiable de louanges. 

A young lady full of talents. Une jeune personne remplie de ta- 

lents. 

322. The least reflection is sufficient to know, in all cases 
similar to these, whether the singular or plural must be used. 
Bonne volonte is in the singular, because we do not say, Des 
bonnes volontes. Defauts is in the plural, because we would 
not say, A man full of vices, if he had only one vice. 

323. Gloire, taken in a general sense, is never used in the 
plural, but it should be, if we had to express, 

He is craving for all sorts of glory. II est affame de tous les genres de 

gloires ; 

because here glory is particularized, and we understand there 
are several sorts of it. 

324. Louanges, praises, cannot possibly be in the singular, 
because one of them alone would not be enough for a craving 
man. 

325. Talent, in the painter's case, is singular, because we 
moaHr but one -talent of an eminent order ; but in the other in- 
stance, we intend to say that the young lady possesses all the 
talents which are acquired by a complete education. 



OF SUBSTANTIVES PRECEDED, AS DETERMINATIVE, BY 
ANY PREPOSITION BUT of de. 

326. 1st. Prepositions; as, 

Singular. 
To travel on foot. Voyager a pec?. 

A safe with a secret lock. Un coffre a secret. 

"Plural. 
To jump with the feet close. Sauter a pieds joints. 

Horned cattle. Des betes a comes. 

To go on foot, to be on foot, a foot- Aller a pied, etre sur pied, valet de 
man, pied, 

are expressions which usage has consecrated in the singular, 



SUBSTANTIVE. 95 

because the mode in which the word foot is used implies only 
a modification of the words aller, etre, valet, without the mind 
being troubled with the idea of the number of feet ; but in this 
phrase, Sauter a pieds joints, the word joints, awaking natural- 
ly the idea of two feet, requires the plural. 

327. Secret is in the singular, because we think only of a 
lock which is a secret one ; but comes is in the plural, because 
we mean animals that always have two horns. 

328. 2d. Preposition en, in ; as, 

Singular. 

Constant in love. Constant en amour. 

To fly from flower to flower. Voler dejleur enjkur. 

I made a marmalade of them. Je les ai mis en marmelade. 

A house covered with slate. Une maison couverte en ardoise. 

Plural. 
Fertile in expedients. Fertile en expedients. 

To lie in. Etre en couches. 

They are cut to pieces. Us sont tailles en pieces. 

A gown trimmed with pearls. Une robe garnie enperles. 

Amour, in the plural, would be nonsense applied to constant. 
Fertile conveys the idea of more than one expedient, or 
else the sentence would have no sense. 

329. It is easily perceived when the plural must be used 
after a certain class of adjectives ; as, full, filled, craving, 
rich, abounding, and others similar to them. Defleur enjleur 
signifies, from one flower to another ; it is clear that a fly, 
or butterfly, cannot leave two flowers at once. 

Les couches, of a woman, is an idiomatical expression in our 
language, referring to the time when she lies in ; but, if mean- 
ing the act of giving birth to a child, the singular may be used ; 
so we may say, 

A happy delivery. Une heureuse couche. 

She died after her delivery, Elle est morte d'une suite de couche, 

that is to say, on account of her delivery. 

Marmelade is in the singular, because there is but one prepa- 
ration so called. 

Pieces is in the plural, because they have been cut into a 
great number of pieces. 

Ardoise is in the singular, because the slates which cover the 



96 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

house are taken as a whole, the mind not being occupied with 
the idea of plurality in regard to them. 

Perles is in the plural, because the mind divides them, counts 
them, if we may say so, and is pleased by exaggerating their 
number. 

330. 3d. The preposition par, by ; as, 

Singular. 
I gave him my property by deed. Je lui donnai mon bien par contract. 

Plural. 
They divided themselves into II se diviserent par troupes. 
troops. 

There is but one contract, and there are several troops. 

331. 4th. The preposition pour, for ; as, 

Peter, shoemaker for men only. Pierre, cordonnier pour homme, 

Homme is used in the singular, because its meaning is vague 
and indefinite, and stands here as a mere qualification. 

332. 5th. The preposition sans, without ; as, 

Singular. 
I am without bread or money. Je suis sans pain et sans argent. 

Plural. 
He is without shoes. II est sans souliers. 

The words pain and argent have no plural in this accepta- 
tion ; besides, the preposition sans, meaning a complete ex- 
clusion, must generally be followed by the singular, unless we 
are compelled to think of several objects, as is the case in 
the other example ; (a man always wears two shoes.) 

333. 6th. The preposition sur, upon, on ; as, 

Singular. 
To receive letter after letter. Recevoir lettre sur lettre. 

Plural. 
To begin anew. Recommencer sur denouveauoc frais. 

Lettre sur lettre, means, a letter after another letter ; it is 
an expression similar to that of de Jleur enfleur, from flower 
to flower. 

Frais has no singular ; that is the reason why we write, 

To travel at a great expense. Voyager a grands frais. 



SUBSTANTIVE. 97 

334. We have already said enough on this subject to enable 
the reader to ascertain with accuracy in what cases he must 
use the plural or the singular in locutions of this kind ; it is 
easily perceived that the singular is more generally employed 
than the other number, which must be rejected whenever the 
sense of the sentence does not convey the idea of plurality in 
a clear and distinct manner. But, in the mean time, particular 
care must be taken to study the real meaning of the sentence, 
as being the only sure guide in the case. 

There are, however, many instances, where either number 
may be employed indifferently. Let us try to explain still 
more explicity what characterizes each number. 

General Rule. 

335. If we speak of a species or of a kind taken generally, 
the singular must be used. 

336. If the mind refers more particularly to individuals, the 
plural must be used. 

337. If we say, 

During lent, Catholics live wholly Les Catholiques, pendant le careme, 
upon fish, ne se nourissent que de poisson, 

we use the singular for poisson, because we think only of the 
kind of food, without any reference to the number offish. 

338. But if we say, 

Lobsters and crabs live only on fish, Les homards et les crabes ne vivent 

que de poissons, 

we represent to ourselves lobsters and crabs living upon a num- 
ber of fish ; the idea dwells upon the individuals of the fish 
tribe, and accordingly the plural is used. 

339. In fine, there are cases in which the plural seems to 
give more force to the expression, as, for instance, if we say, as 
a matter of fact only : 

Catacombs are filled with skulls and Les catacombs sont remplies de tetes 
dead bones. et d'os de mort. 

But, if we wish to move an audience, we should say, 

Think of the horrid picture which Figurez-vous Paffreux tableau qui 
strikes our eyes ; a valley covered frappe nos regards ; une vallee 
with skulls and dead bones. jonchee de tetes et d'os de morts. 

9 



98 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



The mind refers, in the first instance, to bones as those of a 
corpse ; while, in the other, it is struck by the horror of so ma- 
ny persons killed and having their bones left in the valley. 

340. The Dictionary of the Academy should not be con- 
sulted for the explanation of this difficulty of our language ; 
because, being the result of the cooperation of many, it too 
often contains rules implying contradiction to one another. It 
is by common sense and reasoning, according to the rules we 
have laid down, that the student must be guided. We will 
add some few more illustrations, so as to leave as little doubt as 
possible on the subject. 



Singular. 



Fancies of a woman. 

Heaps of grass. 

To fight with the fist. 

Vessels loaded with linen. 

Some pots of basil, of butter. 

A merchant of feathers. 

Merchants of straw, hay, cider. 

A merchant of music. 
Merchants of wine, butter, fish, cod- 
fish, orange-flower. 



Des caprices defemme. 

Des tas d'herbe. 

Se battre a coups de poing. 

Des vaisseaux charges de toile. 

Des pots de basilic, de beurre. 

Un march and de plume. 

Des marchands de paille, defoin, de 

cidre. 
Un marchand de musique. 
Des marchands de vin, de beurre, de 

poisson, de morue, de fleur d'o- 

ranger. 



Plural. 



Female boarding-house. 

A heap of medicinal herbs. 

To scratch with the nails. 

Vessels loaded with codfish. 

A pot of flowers, of pinks. 

A merchant of pens. 

A merchant of cloths from Elbeuf, 
Louviers, of white linen, of coarse 
linen. 

A merchant of engravings. 

A merchant of rich wines, salt but- 
ter, herrings, eels, carps, lobsters, 
flowers. 



Une pension de femmes. 

Un tas d'herbes medicinales. 

Se battre a coups d'ongles. 

Des vaisseaux charges de morues. 

Un pot de fleurs, d'&illets. 

Un marchand de plumes. 

Un marchand de draps d'Elbeuf, de 

Louviers, de ioiles blanches, de 

toiles communes. 
Un marchand d'estampes. 
Un marchand de vins fins, debeurres 

sales, de liarengs, d'anguilles, de 

carpes, de homards, dQ fleurs. 



341. In all the above examples of the singular, the second 
substantives are used in a general and indefinite sense, as mere 
qualificatives ; whereas, in the plural, these same words are 
taken in a sense of individuality. 

342. For instance, des caprices de femme, are caprices 
which are attributed to women in general ; but, une pension 
de femmes is composed of individuals, and the word femmes 
conveys the idea of plurality. 



ADJECTIVE. 99 

Des marchands de plume are men who sell quantities of 
feathers to make beds ; we cannot have the idea of counting 
these feathers ; but un marchand de plumes is a man who sells 
pens to write with, and at once we see that we may buy one, 
two, twenty of them ; the sense is individual, definite. 

343. Merchants of straw, hay, cider, are men who do not 
sell singly one, two straws, &c, but who sell, as a whole, 
straw, hay, &c, then the sense is indefinite, and does not admit 
of plurality ; but a merchant of trees, apricots, grapes, &c, 
always sells those articles by the piece, or, on account of their 
number, sells them by the quantity ; then the sense is in- 
dividual ; you may buy an apricot, two trees, &c. We could 
not, without useless repetition, continue the analysis of the 
other examples, which has been previously given. 

We will terminate this review by mentioning once more, 
that in cases similar to those already noticed, the mind must 
decide the question, by giving to sentences their proper signifi- 
cation. 



OF THE ADJECTIVE, 



344. The adjective is a word which is joined to a noun to 
qualify or modify it. — (Academy.) 

Thus the use of the adjective in speech, always supposes the 
presence of a substantive. 

345. When I say, A wise man, un homme sage, homme is 
a substantive which, without the word sage, applies to any in- 
dividual of the male race of man ; but as soon as this word 
sage is added to it, the idea represented by the two words, 
homme sage, does not designate any man, but one among them 
who has the quality of being wise ; thus wise qualifies and mod- 
ifies the substantive man, and accordingly is an adjective. 

346. We have already stated that nouns are sometimes used 
as adjectives and adjectives as nouns. But it is proper to 
notice here, that this last transformation never takes place 
when we speak of living beings ; for being always, in this case, 



100 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

of the same gender as the noun they represent, they always 
suppose the apposition of this noun to them ; so that when 
employed, the sentence has the character of an ellipsis ; thus, 
when we say, for the Almighty, L'Etemel, Le Tout-puissant, 
the noun God is understood, and, God being masculine, the 
adjective can only be used in that gender. 



The wise (man) , 


Le sage. 


The select (men), 


Les ejus. 


Learned men, 


Les savants. 


A prude (woman), 


Une prude. 



In these examples the word man, homme, is understood in 
the first, hommes in the second and third, and femme in the 
last. 

347. Sometimes, it is true, these adjectives in similar cases 
are accompanied by another adjective, which seems to modify 
them as it would a noun ; but if we analyze those expressions 
we shall discover that these qualificative adjectives act only as 
an adverb should, and, in fact, take the place of one ; 

A true wise (man), Un vrai sage, 

means a man truly wise, un homme vraiment sage, 

A false devotee, Unefausse devote, 

means, a woman falsely religious, une femme faussement devote. 

348. Even when the adjective does not refer to a living 
being, if it designates an attribute, belonging to a class of 
things which may be expressed by a noun, it should be always 
considered as an adjective ; thus, 

The acids of the stomach, Les acides de Pestomac, 

The thick part of the blade, "Lefort de Tepee, 

The purgatives, Les purgatifs, 

A perpendicular, Une perpendiculaire> 

signify, . 

Les (sues) acides de l'estomac. 
Le (endroit) fort de l'epee. 
Les (rem&des) purgatifs. 
Une (ligne) perpendiculaire. 

349. The adjective is, then, only taken as a substantive 
when it expresses an idea which may, positively and actually^ 
be applied to things of different species, as in the following, 



ADJECTIVE. 101 

What is true persuades. he vrai persuade. 

What is honest must be preferred IShonnHe doit etre prefere a Vagri- 
to what is agreeable and useful. able et a futile. 

The first proposition is true when speaking of a narrative, 
a system, an argument, a gesture, a sadness, a desire, &c, but 
it does not designate any of these ideas in particular, and repre- 
sents what is spoken of only as a thing, the nature of which is 
truth. 

350. The same construction may be applied in the second 
sentence when the subject spoken of is what is honest, agree- 
able, and useful. 



VARIATION OF THE ADJECTIVES. 

351. The nature of adjectives being, as we have already 
stated, to express the qualities of nouns, by identifying them- 
selves with them, they must both have the same character- 
istics, and always be of the same number and gender. 

352. Besides, the adjective may qualify the noun to which 
it is joined in a manner more or less extended ; this is what is 
called by grammarians degrees of signification in the adjectives. 

353. We have, then, three distinct parts to consider in ad- 
jectives ; the gender, the number, the degrees of signification. 



OP THE GENDER IN THE ADJECTIVES. 

354. The termination of the adjectives as they are found in 
dictionaries is masculine. 

355. All the adjectives have for their termination in the 
masculine either an e mute, another vowel, or a consonant. 

356. All adjectives in the feminine are ended with an e mute. 

357. 1st. Thus, those which end with an e mute in the 
masculine, do not change their termination in the feminine; 
such are the following, 

Ridiculous, Ridicule. 

A ridiculous man, Un homme ridicule. 

A ridiculous woman, Une femme ridicule. 

9* 



102 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Fidele, facile, timide, rouge, riche, &c. 
Faithful, facile, timid, red, rich, &c. 

358. 2d. Adjectives which in the masculine are ended 
with any other vowel than an e mute, make their feminine by 
the addition of an e mute to the masculine termination. 

Enchante, enchantee. poli, polie. bleu, bleue. 

Enchanted. polished. blue. 

359. There is but one exception to this rule, which is 

Favorite, favori, favorite. 

360. 3d. Adjectives ending in the masculine in an, ien, on, 
besides the addition of an e mute, double their last consonant 
in the feminine ; as, 



Christian, 


Chretien, 


Chretienne. 


Peasant, 


paysan, 


paysan we. 
bonne. 


Good, 


bon, 



361. The Academy, in stating this rule, marks as excep- 
tions ; 

English, Anglican, Anglicane. 

Mahomedan, Mahometan, Mahometane. 

Persian, Persan, Persawe. 

Turkish government, Porte-Ottomawe, 

Sultan, Sultan, Sultane, &c. 

362. Exception. 

Benign, benin, makes benigne. 

Cunning, malin, " matfgne. 

363. 4th. Adjectives ending in the masculine with any 
other consonant than m or n, make their feminine by the addi- 
tion of an e mute to their last consonant ; as, 

Ugly, 

Great, 

Hard, 

Gray, 

Learned, 

Prompt, 

High, 

Strong, 

Cold, 

Fatal, 



laid, 


laide. 


grand, 
dur, 


grande. 
dure. 


gris, 
savant, 


grise. 
savante. 


prompt, 
haut, 


prompte, 
haute. 


fort, 


forte. 


froid, 


froide. 


fatal, 


fatale. 


vil, 


vile. 



364. But this rule has an immense number of exceptions. 
We will explain them one after another. 



ADJECTIVE, 



103 



Adjectives ending with the letter c make their feminine in 
two ways ; some add he to the masculine ; as, 



Frank, 
White, 
Dry, 



franc, 
blanc, 



francAe. 
blancAe. 
seche. 



365. Others make their feminine by changing c into que ; as, 



Public, 

Turk, 

Decayed, 



public, 

turk, 

caduc, 



publigwe. 

tnrque. 

c&duque. 



366. The adjective Greek, grec, makes its feminine by 
keeping the c and adding que ; grecque. 

Raw, crud, makes crue. 

Pretty, gentil, " gentil/e. 

367. Adjectives ending with / in the masculine, make their 
feminine by changing/ into ve ; as, 



Brief, 
Quick, 
New, 
Captive, 



bref, 
vif, 
neuf, 
captif, 



breve. 
Vive. 
neuve. 
captive, &c. 



368. Adjectives ending in g, make their plural- by adding ue 
to the masculine ; as, 

Long, long, longwe. 

369. Adjectives ending in el, eil, as, ol, ul, os, ot, make 
their feminine by doubling the last consonant and adding an e 
mute. 



Beautiful, 

Natural, 

Rosy, 

Fool, 

Void, 

Base, 

Fat, 

Neat, 

Stupid, 

Bigot, 

Similar, 

Old, 



(beau) bel 

naturel, 

vermeil, 

(fou) fol, 

nul, 

bas, 

gras, 

gros, 

net, 

sot, 

bigot, 

pareil, 

(vieux) viel 



bel/e. 

naturel/e. 

vermeil/e. 

folfe. 

nul/e. 

basse. 

grasse. 

grosse. 

nette. 

sotte. 

bigotte. 

pareil/e. 

vieil/e. 



The Academy says that the following adjectives make their 
feminine thus, 



Unpolished, 
Complete, 



mat, 
complet, 



mate, 
complete, 



discret, 


discrete. 


inquiet, 
secret, 
espagnol, 
devot 


inquiete. 
secrete, &c 
espagnole. 
devote. 


suspect, 
frais, 


suspecte; &c 
fraicAe. 


ras, 

dissous, 

absous, 


rase, 

dissoute. 

absoufe. 


jumeau, 


jume#e. 



104 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Discreet, 

Anxious, 

Secret, 

Spaniard, 

Pious, 

Suspicious, 

Fresh, 

Close, 

Dissolved, 

Absolved, 

Twin, 

These exceptions are certainly of a strange nature ; but 
habit and the Academy require them ; they must then be 
admitted. 

370. Adjectives ending in eur have several modes of termin- 
ation for the feminine. Those in eur derived from a present 
participle, by changing ant into ewr, make their feminine by 
changing eur into euse ; as, 

Dancer, danseur, danseuse. 

Deceiver, trompeur, trompeuse, 

Singer, chanteur, chanteuse, &c. 

371. Those ending in teur, unless they are derived from a 
present participle, as in the preceding examples, change eur 
into trice; as, 



Accuser, 


accusateur, 


accusatn'ce. 


Conductor, 


conducteur, 


conductnce. 


Admirer, 


admirateur, 


admiratn'ce. 


Creator, 


createur, 


creatn'ce, &c 



372. Exception. The following adjectives, although de- 
rived from present participles, make their plural in trice ; as, 



Debtor, 


debiteur, 


debitn'ce. 


Executor, 


executeur, 


executnce. 


Inspector, 


inspecteur, 


inspectnce. 


Inventor, 


inventeur, 


inventnce. 


Prosecutor, 


prosecuteur, 


prosecutn'ce. 


Enchanter, 


enchanteur, 


enchanteresse. 



373. Those ending in erieur make their feminine by adding 
an e mute to this termination ; as, 

Exterior, exterieur, exterieure. 

Superior, superieur, superieure. 

Anterior, anterieur, anterieure, &c. 

We must add to this class the following : 

Of age, majeur, majeure. 

Minor, mineur, mineure. 

Better, meilleur, meilleure. 



ADJECTIVE. 



105 



374. There is a great number of nouns with this termination 
that must not be mistaken for adjectives, and make their fem- 
inine terminations in different manners ; they are easily distin- 
guished from adjectives by placing the word man, or woman, 
before them, and seeing if, thus accompanied, they are used in 
the language. A good dictionary is the best rule for such 
cases . 

Those who have a knowledge of the Latin will easily distin- 
guish how to form the feminine of the adjectives which are 
derived from it, because adjectives of that origin always end in 
trice; as, admirer, (Latin) admirator, admiratrix ; admirateur, 
admiratrice, &c. 

375. There are also some adjectives terminating in eur, 
which have no feminine termination, and are used for either 
gender ; such as, 



(Lover of arts,) 

Author, 

Conqueror, 



amateur, 
auteur, 



amateur, 
auteur. 
vainqueur, &c. 



vainqueur, 

376. Adjectives ending in x, change this letter into se, in 
the feminine ; as, 



Courageous, 

Generous, 

Happy, 

377. Exceptions 

Reddish, 
False, 
Sweet, 
Prefixed, 



courageux, 

genereux, 

heureux, 



roux, 
faux, 
doux, 
prefix, 



courageuse. 
genereuse. 
heureuse, &c. 



Rousse. 
Fausse. 
Douce. 
Prefixe. 



378. Five adjectives are entirely defective in their feminine 
termination, and, besides, change their masculine according to 
the letter which begins the next word, whether it is a conso- 
nant or a vowel ; as, 



Foolish, 

Old, 

Beautiful, 

New, 

Soft, 



( before a consonant, or h aspirated, 



vowel, or h mute, 
consonant, or h aspirated, 
vowel, or h mute, 
consonant, or h aspirated, 
vowel, or h mute, 
consonant, or h aspirated, 
vowel, or h mute, 
consonant, or h aspirated, 
vowel, or A mute, 



jfolle. 
? vieille. 
I belle. 



fou, 
fol. 

vieux, 
vieil, 
beau, 
bel, 

ve ^|nouvelle. 



nouvel, 

mou, 

mol, 



\ molle. 



106 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



379. Of these five adjectives, two are not much used ; as, 
vieil and mol. 

Some adjectives have no feminine ; as, 



Active, 

Foppish, 

Pale, 



dispos. 
fat. 
paillet, &c. 



Some have no masculine ; as, 

Mellow, blette, &c. 



NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES OF NUMBER. 



380. Numbers are divided into five classes ; as, 



1st. Cardinal, 
2d. Ordinal. 
3d. Collective. 



4th. Distributive. 
5th. Proportional. 



381. A Table of Cardinal, Ordinal, and Collective Num- 
bers. 

Cardinal Numbers. 



un,m. une, /. 

deux 

troig 

quatre 

cinq 

six 



7 sept 

8 huit 

9 neuf 

10 dix 

11 onze 

12 douze 

13 treize 

14 quatorze 

15 quinze 

16 seize 

17 dix-sept 

18 dix-huit 

19 dix-neuf 

20 vingt 

21 vingt-et-un 

22 vingt-deux, &c. 

30 trente 

31 trente-et-un, &c. 

40 quarante 

41 quarante-et-un, &c. 

50 cinquante 

51 cinquante-et-un, &c. 

52 cinquante-deux 

60 soixante 

61 soixante-et-un, &c. 
70 soixante-ot-dix 



Ordinal Numbers, 

premier 

deux-ieme, second 
trois-ieme 

quatr-ieme 

cinq-uieme 

six-ieme 

sept-ieme 

huit-ieme 

neu-vieme 

dix-ieme 

onz-ieme 

douz-ieme 

troiz-ieme 

quatorz-ieme 

quinz-ieme 

seiz-ieme 

dix-sept-ieme 

dix-huit-ieme 

dix-neu-vieme 

vingt-ieme 

vingt-et-unieme 

vingt-deuzieme 

trentieme 

trente-et-unieme 

quarantieme 

quarante-et-unieme 

cinquantieme 

cinquante-et-unieme 
cinquante-deuxierae, 

soixantieme 

soixante-et-unieme 
soixante-dixieme 



Collective Nouns of Number. 



first 
2d 
3d 

4th 

5th 

6th 

7th 
8th 

9th 

10th 
11th 
12th 
13th 
14th 

15th 

16th 
17th 
18th 
19th 
20th 
21st 



30th 

31st 
40th 
41st 

50th 



unite unit 

couple, paire couple 
trio trio 

deux-couplesj tw p , e c g ou - 
demi-douz- { half a doz- 



huitaine eight 

inine days 
of prayer 
dixaine halfa score 



douzaine 



a dozen 



( fortnight, 
quinzaine fifteen 



vingtaine 



a score 



a score and 
a half 



51st 
&c.52d 



trentame 

quarantaine two scores 

cinquantainej^/Xlf 



60th soixantaine 

61st 
70th 



three 







ADJECTIVE. 




107 


71 
72 


soixante-onze 
soixaute-douze, &c. 


soixante-onzieme 
soixante-douzieme 


71st 
72d 




80 


quatre-vingts 


quatre-vingtieme 


80th 


quatrevingt- | four8coreg 


81 
90 
91 
100 
101 
200 


quatro-vingt-un 

quatre-vingt-dix 

quatre-vingt-onze, «fec 

cent 

cent-un, &c. 

deux-cents 


quatre-vingt-unieme 81st 
quatre-vingt-dixieme 90th 
. quatre-vingt-onzieme 9lst 
centieme 100th 
cent-unieme, &c. 101st 
deux-centieine, &c. 200th 


centaine five scores 
deux-centaines ten scores 


1,000 


mille 


millieme 


1,000th 


un-millier j one ^ ou - 
' sand 


2,000 


deux-mille, &c. 


deux-millieme 


2,000th 


deux-milliers tw ° ***- 
( sand 


10,000 

' 1,000,000 

1,000,000,000 


dix-mille 
un million 
un billion 


dix-milliemo 
millionieme 
billionieme 


10,000th 
millionth 
billionth 


uno-myriade a myriad 
1 million 1 million 
1 billion 1 billion 



The formation of the ordinal adjective from the cardinal is 
so simple, that it requires no further explanation. 

382. When, in French, we speak of the days of the month, 

instead of using the ordinal number, as is done in English, we 

employ the cardinal ; as, 

The eighth of April. Le huit Avril, or d'Avril. 

The 26th of the next month. Le vingt-six du mois prochain. 

383. When the day of the month is used with the preposi- 
tion q/*, there is an ellipsis ; the words huitieme jour being under- 
stood instead of huit ; when without o/, there is a mere change 
of words. But, however, when we speak of the first day of 
the month, we keep the ordinal number as in the English ; as, 

The First of January. J J* P rem ! er Janvier (change of words). 

J (Le premier de Janvier (ellipsis) . 

This exception does not extend any further ; to say, 

The second day of the month, Le second du mois, 

is not correct. 

384. Although the number onze (eleven) begins with a 
vowel, the article singular, Ze, la, does not make an elision be- 
fore it, and les is pronounced as if the word onze began with an 
h aspirated ; as, 

The eleventh of March. Le onze de Mars. 

The eleven apples were good. Les (7*)onze pommes etaient bonnes. 

385. In the formation of some of the compound numbers, 
the word one is placed between the first and the last part ; as, in 

Twenty-one, vingt-et-un. 

Thirty-one, trente-et-un. 

Forty-one, quarante-et-un. 

Fifty-one, cinquante-et-un. 

Sixty-one, soixante-et-un. 

Seventy, soixante-et-dix (exception). 



108 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

386. This rule does not extend to any other number, and 
it would be wrong to say, vingt-et-deux, trente-et-quatre, &c. 
Some write, soixante-et-onze, soixante-et-douze, but it is not 
right. This mode of counting in English, one and twenty, 
six and thirty, &c, is not used in French. 

387. One, or a, placed before the words hundred and thou- 
sand, in English, are suppressed in French ; thus, one hundred, 
one thousand, are expressed by cent, mille. 

388. In some parts of France, instead of soixante-et-dix and 
quatrevingt-dix, people say septante and nonante, but this lo- 
cution is reproved by well-educated people. 

389. There are, besides the numerical adjectives already 
mentioned above, many others used in poetry, music, games, 
&c. ; as, 

Distich, distique. 

Tiercet, tercet. 

Quatrain, &c, quatrain. 

Solo, solo. 

Duet, duo. 

Music in three parts, trio. 

Quartet, &c. quatuor, &c. 
Two number ones (playing with dice), beset. 

Two number sixes, " " sonnet, &c. 

390. Un millier is very often employed for one thousand 
weight. Quintal is only used in the sense of one hundred 
weight. 

391. The Distributive Numbers are those expressing the 
different parts of a whole ; as, 

The half, la moitie. 

The third, le tiers. 

The fourth, le quart. 

The fifth, le cinquieme,&c. 

392. The Proportional Numbers denote the progressive in- 
crease of things ; as, 

The double, le double. 

The treble, le triple. 

A hundred fold, le centuple, &c. 



ADJECTIVE. 109 



OF NUMBER IN ADJECTIVES. 



393. Adjectives agreeing in number, as well as in gender, 
with the nouns which they qualify, it becomes necessary now 
to examine what alterations they suffer in their termination 
when joined to a noun in the plural. 

394. General Rule. Adjectives, whatever may be their 
termination, form their plural by the addition of an 5 to the 
feminine and masculine ; as, 





Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Good, 


Bon, bons. 


Bonne, bonnes. 


Polished, 


Poli, polis. 


Polie, polies, &c 



395. This rule has no exceptions for the feminine termina- 
tion ; as to the other, there are two cases in which this rule is 
not observed. 

396. 1st. Adjectives ending in s or x in the singular, do 
not change in the plural ; as, 



Big, 


gros, 


gros. 


Fat, 


gras, 


gras. 


Hideous, 


hideux, 


hideux. 


Jealous, 


jaloux, 


jaloux, &c 



397. 2d. Adjectives ending in au and al make their plural 
by changing this termination into aux; as, 



Beautiful, 


beau, 


beaux. 


New, 

General, 

Equal, 


nouveau, 
general, 
egal, 


nouveaux. 
generaux. 
egaux, &c 



398. All cardinal numbers indicate the plural, except one, 
un; for it would be absurd if a word, which in all cases denotes 
a plurality, should be followed by a singular noun : thus, two, 
deux; ten, dix; twenty, vingt, &c, are always in the plural ; 
as, 

Two men, deux hommes. 

Ten years, dix ans. 

Twenty days, vingt jours, &c. 

399. The adjective quatre-vingts takes the plural termina- 
tion in the word twenty, provided it is not followed by another 
number ; as, 

Eighty men, quatre-vingts hommes. 

Eighty-two men, quatre-vingt-deux hommes. 

10 



110 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

400. The adjective hundred takes the plural in the same 
cases ; as, 

Two hundred days, deux cents jours. 

Two hundred and one days, deux cent un jours, &c. 

401. The adjective thousand, mille, never takes the plural ; 
as, 

Ten thousand men, dix mille hommes. 

One thousand men, mille hommes. 

402. The word thousand employed in dates is written mil, 
and means only ten hundred ; as, 

In 1830, en mil huit cent trente. 

403. Although this example is correct, it is more elegant to 
say for, 

In eighteen hundred and thirty, en dix-huit cent trente. 

404. The word mille, used as a noun, and meaning a mile, 
follows the rule of nouns and takes the plural ; as, 

A hundred miles, cent milks. 

405. The adjectives crud, now cru, raw, nud, now nu, 
naked, make their plural, crus, nus. 

406. The adjective, penitentiel, makes its plural, peniten- 
tiaux, 

Penitential psalms, Les psaumes pinitentiaux. 

Universal, universel, makes its plural universels, when em- 
ployed as an adjective, but taken as a noun used in philosophi- 
cal discussions it is written universaux (Academy, 1835) ; 

La these des universaux a fait dans The thesis on universals has been 
les siecles passes un grand sujet in past ages a great cause of dis- 
de dispute parmi les ecoles. pute among the schools. 

407. Adjectives ending in ant, ent, follow the general rule, 
keeping the t and adding an s in their plural ; 

Caressing, caressant, caressants. 

Contented, content, contents. 

408. But when using the qualificatives in ant, we must 
ascertain if they are really qualificatives or present participles, 
for in this last case they neither take the plural nor feminine ; 



ADJECTIVE. 



Ill 



Ces deux femmes, craignant de le 
chagriner, l'ont perdu des sa 
jeunesse. 



These two women, fearing to cause 
him pain, have spoiled him from 
his youth. 



409. The adjective, all, tout, is an exception to the pre- 
ceding rule, because it drops the t in the plural ; 

All men are equal. Tous les hommes sont egaux. 

410. The adjectives ending in the singular masculine in al 
are divided, with regard to the formation of their plural, into 
three categories. 

Most of them change al into aux. 

Some only add an s to the singular. 

Some, by being never joined to a masculine noun, have no 
plural in this gender, and then follow the general rule of femi- 
nine adjectives. 

411. 1st. Adjectives in al, making their plural aux ; 

(Not in use.) 
(Academy.) 
( (Most generally 
\ used in the fem.) 

(Academy.) 

{Les idits bur sauce.) 

(Noel & Chapsal.) 

[dais.) 
(Napoleon Lan- 
(Bouilliers.) 

[dais.) 
(Napoleon Lan- 
(Ibid.) 

(Ibid.) 
(Ibid.) 

(Ibid.) 
(Academy.) 
(Napoleon Land.) 
(Academy.) 



Annual, 
Archiepiscopal, 

Common, 

Baptismal, 

Biennial, 

Brutal, 

Pecuniary, 

Capital, 

Canonical, 

What belongs 

to the brain, 
Ceremonial, 
Claustral, 
Collateral, 
Collegiate, 
Colossal, 
Commensal, 
Conjugal, 
Decemviral, 
Decennial, 
Decimal, 
Disloyal, 
Diametrical, 
Doctrinal, 
What belongs 

to domains, 
Dorsal, 
Dotal, 
Equal, 
Electoral, 
Episcopal, 
Equilateral, 
Equinoctial, 



annal, 
archiepiscopal, 

banal, 

baptismal, 

biennal, 

brutal, 

bursal, 

capital, 

canonical, 

■ cerebral, 



ceremonial, 

claustral, 

collateral, 

collegial, 

colossal, 

commensal, 

conjugal, 

decemviral, 

decennal, 

decimal, 

deloyal, 

diametral, 

doctrinal, 

> domanial, 

dorsal, 

dotal, 

egal, 

electoral, 

episcopal, 

equilateral, 

equinoxial, 



annaux. 
archiepiscopaux. 

banaux. 

baptismaux. 

biennaux. 

brutaux. 

bursaux. 

capitaux. 

canonicaux. 

cerebraux. 

ceremoniaux. 

claustraux. 

collateraux. 

collegiaux. 

colossaux. 

commensaux. 

conjugaux. 

decemviraux. 

decennaux. 

decimaux. 

deloyaux. 

diametraux. 

doctrinaux. 

domaniaux. 

dorsaux. 

dotaux. 

egaux. 

electoraux, 

episcopaux, 

equilateraux. 

equinoxiaux. 



(Girault, Juvivier.) 
(Academy.) 



112 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



Trusty, 


fe'al, 


feaux. 


(Ibid.) 


Feudal, 


feodal, 


feodaux. 




Fiscal, 


fiscal, 


flscaux. 




Fundamental, 


fondamental, 


fondamentaux. 




General, 


general, 


generaux. 




Grammatical 


grammatical, 


grammaticaux. 


(Ibid.) 


Horizontal, 


horizontal, 


horizontaux. 


(Napoleon Land.) 


Ideal, 


ideal, 


ideaux. 


(Ibid.) 


Illegal, 


illegal, 


illegaux. 


(Academy.) 


Immoral, 


immoral, 


immoraux. 




Impartial, 


impartial, 


impartiaux. 


(La Harpe.) 


Imperial, 


imperial, 


imperiaux. 




Unequal, 


inegal, 


inegaux. 




Infernal, 


infernal, 


infernaux. 




Lateral, 


lateral, 


lateraux. 




Legal, 


legal, 


legaux. 




Liberal, 


liberal, 


liberaux. 




Local, 


local, 


locaux. 




Loyal, 


loyal, 


loyaux. 




Lombrical, 


lombrical, 


lombricaux. 


(Napoleon Land.) 


Machinal, 


machinal, 


machinaux. 


(Academy.) 
(Girault,Juvivier.) 


Martial, 


martial, 


martiaux. 


Medicinal, 


medicinal, 


medicinaux. 


(Ibid.) 


Medical, 


medical, 


medicaux. 


(Ibid.) 


Meridional, 


meridional, 


meridionaux. 




Moral, 


moral, 


moraux. 




National, 


national, 


nationaux. 




Numeral, 


numeral, 


numeraux. 


(Academy.) 


Nuptial, 


nuptial, 


nuptiaux. 




Occidental, 


occidental, 


occidentaux. 




Ordinal, 


ordinal, 


ordinaux. 




Oriental, 


oriental, 


orientaux. 




Original, 


original, 


originaux. 




Paradoxical, 


paradoxal, 


paradoxaux. 


(Napoleon Land.) 
(Ibid.) 


Partial, 


partial, 


partiaux. 


Patriarchal, 


patriarcal, 


patriarcaux. 




Pectoral, 


pectoral, 


pectoraux. 


(Academy.) 


Presidial, 


presidial, 


presidiaux. 




Primordial, 


primordial, 


primordiaux. 


(Napoleon Land.) 


Principal, 


principal, 


principaux. 




Provincial, 


provincial, 


provinciaux. 




Pyramidal, 


pyramidal, 


pyramidaux. 


(Academy.) 


Quadrennial, 


quatriennal, 


quatriennaux. 


(Ibid.) 


Radical, 


radical, 


radicaux. 




Royal, 


royal, 


royaux. 




Rural, 


rural, 


ruraux. 




Seignorial, 


seigneurial, 


seigneuriaux. 




SeptentrionaL 


septentrional, 


septentrionaux. 




Sepulchral, 


sepulcral, 


sepulcraux. 




Social, 


social, 


sociaux. 




Transversal, 


transversal, 


transversaux. 




Trivial, 


trivial, 


triviaux. 


(Ibid,) 


Verbal, 


verbal, 


verbaux. 




Vertical, 


vertical, 


verticaux. 




Vital, 


vital, 


vitaux. 




V r ocal, 


vocal, 


vocaux. 


(Ibid.) 





ADJECTIVE. 


412. 2d. 


Adjectives in a?, making their plural by adding 


Fatal, 


fatal, 


fatals. 


Final, 


final, 


finals. 


Glacial, (frozen,) glacial, 


glacials. 


Nasal, 


nasal, 


nasals. 


Naval, 


naval, 


navals. 


Theatrical, 


theatral, 


theatrals. 


413. 3d. 


Adjectives in a 


1, having no plural in the mascu 


Beneficial, 


beneficial, 


beneficiales. (Plural feminine.) 


Diagonal, 


diagonal, 


diagonales. 


Borial, 


boreal, 


boreales. 


Brumal, 


brumal, 


brumales. 


Crural, 


crural, 


crurales. 


Experimenta 


I, experimental, 


experimentales. 


Instrumental 


instrumental, 


instrumentales. 


Mental, 


mental, 


mentales. 


Frugal, 


frugal, 


frugales. 


Labial, 


labial, 


labiales. 


Natal, 


natal, 


natales. 


Patronal, 


patronal, 


patronales. 


Parochial, 


paroissial, 


paroissiales. 


Pascal, 


pascal, 


pascales. 


Pastoral, 


pastoral , 


pastorales. 


Proverbial, 


proverbial, 


proverbiales. 


Virginal, 


virginal, 


virginales. 


Zodiacal, 


zodiacal, 


zodiacales. 



113 



OF THE DEGREES OF SIGNIFICATION OF THE ADJECTIVES. 



414. There are three degrees of signification in the adjec- 
tives ; the positive, the comparative, and the superlative. 

415. 1st. The Positive is the adjective itself, expressing 
the quality of the noun without any increase or diminution ; as, 



Merit is modest, 
Gold is precious. 



Le merite est modeste. 
L'or est precieux. 



416. 2d. The Comparative is so called, because it ex- 
presses a comparison between two or several objects. If we 
compare persons or things together, some are either equal, 
superior, or inferior, to the others ; thus there are three sorts 
of comparatives ; that of equality, that of superiority, and that 
of inferiority. 

417. The comparative of equality is formed by adding aussi, 

as, before the adjective, and que, as, after it ; as, 

Gold is not so precious as diamond, L'or n'est pas aussi precieux que le 

diamant. 
10* 



114 FRENCH GRAMMAR, 

418. The Comparative of superiority is formed by placing 
plus, more, before the adjective, and que, than, after it ; as, 

Gold is more precious than silver. L'or est plus precieux que l'argent. 

In English the comparative of superiority is formed either 
by placing more before the adjective, or by adding er to the 
termination of the adjective ; but these two modes of expres- 
sion must be rendered in the same manner in French ; as, 
Peter is richer than Paul, Pierre est plus riche que Paul. 

419. The Comparative of inferiority is formed by prefixing 
moins, less, to the adjective, and placing que after it ; as, 

Silver is less precious than gold. L'argent est moins precieux que l'or. 

420. When several adjectives qualify the same noun, each 
one must be preceded by one of the adverbs, aussi, plus, 
moins, according to the nature of the comparison, and the last 
adjective followed by que ; as, 

This woman is as beautiful, as Cette femme est aussi belle, aussi 

good, and as young as yourself. bonne, et aussi jeune que vous. 

This man is less beautiful, less Cet homme est moins beau, moins 

good, and less young than your- bon, et moins jeune que vous. 

self. 

This young lady is more handsome, Cette demoiselle est plus belle, plus 

more amiable, and younger than aimable, et plus jeune que vous. 

yourself. 

421. There are three adjectives which are comparative by 
themselves ; 

Better, meilleur, instead of plus bon. 

Worse, pire, " plus mauvais. 

Less, moindre, " plus petit. 

422. Beginners in the study of the French language being 
apt to confound these comparative adjectives with the com- 
parative adverbs, mieux, pis, moins, because they are rendered 
in English by the same words, better, worse, less, it is neces- 
sary, by a comparison between the two sorts of words, to 
show the difference of their formation ; 

Adjective, Meilleur, better, is the comparative of good, bon, and is used 
instead of plus bon, which is never said in French. 

Adverb, Mieux, better, is the comparative of well, bien (adverb), and 
is used instead of plus bien, which is never said 
in French. 



ADJECTIVE. 115 

Adjective, Pire, worse, is the comparative of mauvais, bad, and is 

used instead of plus mauvais. (Both, may be said 

in French.) 
Adverb, Pis, worse, is the comparative of mal, badly, and is used 

instead of plus mal. (Both may be said in 

French.) 

Adjective, Moindre, less, is the comparative of petit, less or smaller, and 
is used instead of plus petit. (Both may be said 
in French.) 

Adverb, Moins, less, is the comparative of pen, little, and is used 
instead of plus peu, which is never used. 

Examples. 

This fruit is good, but that is better. Ce fruit est bon, mais celui-ci est 

meilleur. 
I love you well, but I love him Je vous aime bien, mais je l'aime 

better. rnieux. 

His health is bad, but it has been Sa sante est mauvaise, mais elle a 

worse. ete pire. 

He used to speak badly, but he H parlait mal, mais il parle pis que 

speaks worse than ever. jamais. 

My income is small, but yours is Mon revenu est petit, mais le votre 

less. est moindre. 

I drink little, but you drink still less. Jebois peu, mais vous buvez encore 

moins. 

423. 3d. The adjective is in the Superlative degree of com- 
parison, when it expresses the quality of the noun in the high- 
est degree, or in a very high degree ; hence there are two 
sorts of superlatives, the absolute and the relative. 

424. The Superlative absolute is made by putting tres, 
fort, bien, very, before the adjective ; it is called absolute, 
because it expresses no relation to other objects ; as, 

Boston is a very fine city, Boston est une tres belle ville. 

425. The adverbs, extremely, extremement, infinitely, infi- 
niment, are also the sign of the superlative absolute ; 

This woman is extremely amiable. Cette femme est extremement ai- 

mable. 
This man is supremely happy. Cet homme est infiniment heureux. 

426. The superlative relative is formed by placing the 
article before the comparatives, plus, pis, moins, meilleur, 
pire, moindre ; it is relative because it expresses a relation to 
other objects ; the article must be of the same number and 
gender as the adjective. 

Paris is the finest of cities, Paris est la plus belle des villes. 

You are the smaller of the two. Vous etes le moins grand des deux. 

He is the worst of the family. II est le pire de la famille, &c. 



116 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



427. When several adjectives in the superlative qualify a 
noun, the adverbs plus, moins, must be repeated before every 
one of them, as well as the article. 



OF THE PLACE OF ADJECTIVES, 



428. The place of adjectives before or after the noun is 
not indifferent in French. 

Some are always placed before the noun. 

Some are always placed after the noun. 

Some are indifferently placed either before or after the noun, 
so as to please the ear and conform to taste. 

Some, in fine, change entirely their signification by being 
placed before or after the noun. 

429. Numerical adjectives are always placed before the 
nouns, as well as the fifteen following, when they are taken in 
their natural sense ; as, 



(Castle,) 


beautiful, 


beau, 


chateau. 


(Bread,) 


good, 


bon, 


pain. 


(Man,) 


brave, 


brave, 


homme. 


(Friend,) 


dear, 


cher, 


ami. 


(Animal,) 


pitiful, 


chetif, 


animal. 


(Hat,) 


great, 


grand, 


chapeau. 


(Boy,) 


big, 


gros, 


gargon. 


(Woman,) 


young, 


jeune, 


femme. 


(Dinner,) 


bad, 


mauvais, 


diner. 


(Horse,) 


wicked, 


mechant, 


cheval. 


(Book,) 


better, 


meilleur, 


livre. 


(Sorrow,) 


less, 


moindre, 


chagrin. 


(Cat,) 


small, 


petit, 


chat. 


(Coat,) 


old, 


vieux, 


habit. 


(Pain,) 


true, 


vrai, 


chagrin. 


Ten dollars, 




dix gourdes. 


The first man, 




le 'premier homme 



430. Exception 1. Numerical adjectives are placed after 
proper names, nouns, and pronouns, when they are employed 
as quotations, and without the article. 

431. Instead of the ordinal adjectives, used in English, the 
cardinal are employed in French, except when referring to 
the first number, but only after proper names and nouns ; as, 



ADJECTIVE. 117 

Louis the Fourteenth, Louis Quatorze. (cardinal.) 

Louis the First, Louis Premier. 

Chapter Second, Chapitre Deux. 

Chapter First, Chapitre Premier. 

Page Fortieth. Page Quarante. 

He the Tenth, Lui Dixieme. 

432. The above fifteen adjectives, when connected by a 
conjunction with another adjective, which, by its nature, ought 
to follow the noun, lose their place, and are placed after the 
noun ; as, 

She is a tall and well made woman. C'est une femme grande et beinfaite ; 

and not 

C'est une grande et Men faite femme, 

because the adjective faite, being derived from the past parti- 
ciple of the verb faire, ought to be placed after the noun. 

433. It is seen by the preceding example, that although in 
English several adjectives may qualify a noun without the help 
of a conjunction ; in French this conjunction is required ; thus 
this phrase, 

He is an amiable, well behaved man, C'est un homme aimable et poll, 
(without a conjunction.) 

requires et between the two adjectives. 

434. There are some few idiomatical expressions in which 
custom allows the noun to be placed between two adjectives ; 
as, 

He is a tall, thin man. C'est un grand homme maigre. 

435. But where several adjectives follow a noun, and a rest 
is placed between them, so as to show that one qualification 
comes after another, to enumerate its different qualities, the 
conjunction is not required ; as, 

He is a well bred, rich, learned, elo- C'est un homme Men ne, riche, se- 
quent, and generous man. vant, Eloquent, et gemreux. 

436. 2d. Adjectives formed from the past participles are 
always placed after the nouns ; this rule has no exceptions. 

A round face. Une figure arrondie. (arrondi.) ~] 

A well bred man. Un homme bien n£. (ne.) I past 

A civil man. Un homme poli. (poli.) [participles. 

A broken horse. Un cheval dompte. (dompte.) J 



118 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

437. Adjectives formed from the present participle are gen- 
erally placed after the noun, but sometimes more elegantly 
before it ; it is a matter of taste. 

An entertaining work. Un ouvrage divertissant. 

A charming woman. Une charmante femme. 

438. Adjectives which qualify in the following manner, are 
placed after the noun ; as, 

By the form, \ round ^ £able ronde. 

3 ' <. square box, boite carree. 

ij v t u p pn i nr ^ white house, maison blanche. 

ay tne color, ^ green c ^^ ^ ^^ 

By the taste, $ bitter herb, herbe amere. 

J ' ( sweet wine, vin doux. 

By the flavor, odoriferous flower, fleur odoriferante. 

Bv the sound £ harmonious organ, orgue harmonieux. 

y ' ( sonorous instrument, instrument sonore. 

By expressing action , \ acti T e f torne y f procureur actif. 

J F s ' ( vigilant general, general vigilant. 

By expressing an effect, ( »<£*' ™f °£J%™- 

^eo^tenithrnalj-a. pleasure, plaisir^, 

~thes P eeies ofajs™ *£-«. *&££* 

,, . ( French nation, nation Francaise. 

Expressing country. \ p ersian empirej empire p er ^ 

T _ , , . , _, f grotesque face, figure grotesque. 

In fine, those which ter- ile s h discours vutrile. 

minate in ague t J, ule, ^ cred dou8 woman femme cr ^^ 

and most of those in] pubHc good? bien puMic , 

ic, ique. L magnificent palace, palais magnifique. 

439. It is only in poetry, or in prose of an elevated char- 
acter, that adjectives, formed from the perfect participle, are 
placed before the noun. 

440. Compound words, where this order is not observed, 
are not exceptions to the above rule, because the adjectives 
make only one with the nouns : thus we write correctly, 

An innocent youth, un blanc-hec. 

Quicksilver, vif-a,rgent. 

Robin red-breast, rouge-gorge, &c. 

441. 3d. All the adjectives which are not mentioned above 
may, when taken in their natural meaning, be placed before or 
after the noun ; it is a matter of taste, which exercises a great 
influence in the style of writing, by adding to the force or ele- 
gance of the language. It is not in a grammar that this ques- 



ADJECTIVE. 



119 



tion ought to find its place, it is enough for us to have noticed 
the fact as a caution. 

442. 4th. The adjectives, whose significations are changed or 
modified by being placed before or after the noun, will be found 
in the following list : 



A LIST SHOWING THE MEANING OF SEVERAL SENTENCES 
ACCORDING TO THE PLACE OF ADJECTIVES. 



443. A noble appearance. 
L'air grand. 



444. 



445. 



A threatening exterior. 
L'air mauvais. 



A man who is tall. 
Un homme grand. 

446. A man great in his views. 
Un homme grand dans ses 

vues. 

447. A man of small stature. 
Un petit homme. 

448. A credulous, simple man. 
Un bon homme. 

449. A brave, courageous man. 
Un homme brave. 

450. A cruel child, a cruel people, 

a cruel woman. 

Un enfant cruel, un peuple cruel, 
un femme cruelle. 

451. Wood dead on the spot. 
Du bois mort. 

452. A positive thing, positive news, 

a positive mark. 
Une chose, une nouvelle, une 
marque certaine. 

453. A common voice. 
Une voix commune. 

454. A false string. 

J] ne fausse corde. 

455. Bad light, (for a picture.) 
J] n faux jour. 

456. A false key. 
Une fausse clef. 



Manners of a courtier. 
De grands airs. 

An ignoble appearance, mephitic air. 
Le mauvais air. 

A great man. 

Un grand homme (is a man who has 
great talents, unless we add to the 
word man some qualities of the 
body, as a great thin man, un 
grand homme maigre.) 

A mean man. 
Un homme petit. 

A good man. 
Un homme bon. 

An honest man. 
Un brave homme. 

A child, a people, a woman, insup- 
portable, on account of their tem- 
per. 

Un cruel enfant, un cruel peuple, 
une cruelle femme. 

Wood of no value. 
Du mort bois. 

A certain thing, certain news, a cer- 
tain mark. 

Une certaine chose, une certaine 
nouvelle, une certaine marque. 

Unanimously. 
D'une commune voix. 

A tone which cannot agree with an- 
other. 
Une corde fausse. 

Fault in the shading of a picture. 
Un jour faux. 

A wrong key. 
Une clef fausse. 



120 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



457. A back door, (so as to go out 

without being seen.) 

Une fausse porte. 

458. Low water, (when the tide is 

low.) 
Une morte eau. 

459. The last year of the war. 

La derniere annee de la guerre. 

460. A cunning man. 
Un homme malin. 

461. The Holy Spirit. 

Le saint esprit. 

462. A wise woman. 
Un femme sage. 

463. A big woman. 
Une grosse femme. 

464. A man who has the character 

and manners of a gentleman. 
Un galant homme. 

465. Une galante femme is not said 

in French. 

466. A man who belongs to the no- 

bility. 
Un gentil-hovamQ. 

467. A new coat, (newly made.) 
Un nouvel habit. 

468. Wine recently made. 
Du vin nouveau. 

469. A poor man, author, &c. (a 

man who has a poor mind.) 
Un pauvre homme, auteur, &c. 

470. A poor orator, poor wine, poor 

fare, poor comedy, are terms 
of contempt or disdain. 

Un pauvre orateur, du pauvre 

vin. . 
Une pauvre chere, une pauvre 

comedie. 

471. A poor language is that which 

has not all which is necessa- 
ry to convey ideas. 
Une langue pauvre. 

472. A man who is bizarre, ridicu- 

lous, eccentric. 
Unplaisant homme. 



A mock door, (the appearance of a 
door, painted or made out of mar- 
ble, stone, or wood.) 

Une porte fausse. 

Water that does not run. 

Une eau morte. 

The last year, is the year preceding 

this one. 
L'annee derniere. 

The malign spirit, (the Devil.) 
Le malin esprit. 

The Holy Spirit common to the 
three persons of the holy trinity. 
L 'esprit saint. 

A midwife. 
Une sage-femme. 

A woman in a state of pregnancy. 
Une femme grosse. 

A man who is gallant with the la- 
dies, and tries to please them, &c. 
Un homme galant. 

A woman of irregular habits. 
Une femme galante. 

A man who is pretty, gay, lively, 

jovial, &c. 
Un homme gentil. 

A new coat, (of a new pattern.) 
Un habit nouveau. 

Wine of a new cask. 
Du nouveau vin. 

A poor man, author, (who has no 

money.) 
Un auteur pauvre. 
Un homme pauvre. 

Poor prince, poor queen, poor inno- 
cents ! are expressions of pity; the 
sound of the voice shows the 
meaning. 

Le pauvre prince, la pauvre reine. 

Les pauvres innocents ! 



A poor language, meaning not only 
that it is deficient in words, but 
has no softness, energy, or beauty. 

Une pauvre langue. 

A man who is gay, making other 

people laugh. 
Un homme plaisant. 



ADJECTIVE. 



121 



473. A man who is contemptible, 

impudent, &c. 
Un plaisant personnage. 

474. A bad comedy, (scornfully.) 
Une plaisante comedie. 

475. A tale without truth or proba- 

bility. 
Un plaisant conte. 

476. A proud and impudent manner 

of speaking. 
Le haut ton. 

477. An honest man. 
Un honnete homme. 

478. A dishonest man. 

Un malhonntte homme. 

479. A bad man, (in regard to his 

actions.) 
Un mtchant homme. 

480. A poor, flat epigram. 
Une michante epigramme. 

481. A new book, (another book.) 
Un nouveau livre. 

482. Furieux, before a noun, means 

great. 
A furious tempest. 
Une furieuse tempete. 



The part of an actor, which is full 

of wit, sarcasm, &c. 
Un personnage plaisant 

An amusing comedy, (witty, &c.) 
Un comedie plaisante. 

An agreeable and pleasing tale. 

Un conte plaisant. 

A high tone, (in music.) 

Le ton haut. 

A polite man. 

Un homme honnite. 

A man of ill breeding. 
Un homme malhonnete. 

A bad man, (in regard to his thoughts 

and speech.) 
Un homme mediant. 

A wicked epigram. 

Une epigramme mechante. 

A new book, (recently published.) 
Un livre nouveau. 

Furieux, after a noun, means mad 

with rage. 
A furious lion. 
Un lion furieux. 



483. 


Mortel, before a noun, means 


Mortel, after the noun, means apt to 




excessive. 


die. 




There are ten mortal leagues. 


This mortal life. 




11 y a dix mortelles lieues. 


Cette vie mortelle. 


484. 


An ugly man. 


A mean man. 




Un vilain homme. 


Un homme vilain. 


485. 


Seul, before a noun, means 


Seul, after a noun, means without 




only one. 


company. 




An only man. 


A man alone. 




Un seul homme. 


Un homme seul. 


486. 


The rich Lucullus, means Lu- 


Lucullus the rich, means that there 




cullus who is rich. 


are several Luculluses, and we 
speak of him who is rich. 


487. 


Le riche Lucullus. 


Lucullus le riche. 



11 



122 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



OF ADJECTIVES CONSIDERED IN REFERENCE TO THEIR 
RELATIONS WITH OTHER WORDS. 

488. The relations of adjectives with other words are the 
following : 

1st. Agreement of adjectives with nouns. 
2d. Use of adjectives with the article. 
3d. Regimen of the adjective. 

OF THE AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES. 

489. The adjective makes but one. with the noun which it 
qualifies ; consequently, it must follow the inflection of the noun 
and agree with it in number and gender ; as, 

Good father. Bon p&re. 

Good mother. Bonne mere. 

Exquisite wine. Excellents vins. 

Handsome women. Belles femmes. 

490. Exceptions. From this rule we must except bare, 
nud, half, demi, when placed before a noun, and late, feu, 
when placed before the article or possessive pronoun ; as, 

He goes barefooted. II va raz-pieds. 

I will be with you in half an hour. Je serai a vous dans une demi-heme. 

The late queen. Feu la reine. 

491. But the agreement takes place, if the adjectives nud 
and demi be placed after the noun, and feu between the article 
or pronoun and the noun ; as, 

His feet are bare. H a les pieds nus. 

I will be with you in an hour and a Je serai a vous dans une heure et 

half. demie. 

The late queen. La feue reine. 

My late mother. Ma feue mere. 

492. Adjectives employed to qualify verbs are used adverb- 
ially and remain unchanged ; as, 

To sing out of tune. Chanter faux. 

She sings out of tune. Elle chante faux. 

She speaks aloud. Elle parle haut. 

493. Some are employed as if they were prepositions, and 
then do not agree ; as, supposed, suppose; excepted, excepte : 



ADJECTIVE. 123 

Suppose the truth of the fact. Suppose^ la veritedu fait. 

Except some wretches. Excepte quelques malheureux. 

494. But if those adjectives are placed after the nouns, they 
take the agreement ; as, 

Some wretches being- excepted. Quelques malheureux exceptis. 

The truth of the fact being sup- La verite du fait suppose" e. 



495. As a consequence of the above rule, we must admit 
that comparative and superlative adjectives must agree with the 
nouns they qualify, since they are but adjectives taken in a 
sense more or less extensive ; as, 

To the most perfect beauty, she adds A la beaute la plus parfaite, elle joint 
the most exquisite sensibility. la sensibilite la plus exquise. 

496. Most generally, in French, comparatives and super- 
latives are placed after the noun, as above. 

497. Sometimes the superlative refers to a noun which is 
not expressed, then we must in our minds reestablish the ex- 
istence of that noun, and make the superlative agree with it ; 



as 



Winter is the dullest of seasons. L'hiver est (la saison) la plus triste 

des saisons. 

The Bois de Boulogne is the most Le Bois de Boulogne est (le lieu pub- 
agreeable and the most frequent- lie) le plus agreable et le plus fre- 
ed among the public places in the quente des lieux publics des envi- 
neighbourhood of Paris. rons de Paris. 

.In these two sentences, the words saison and lieu public are 
understood, and it is with them that the superlatives agree. 

498. Besides this general rule of the agreement of adjec- 
tives with their nouns, there are several particular ones which 
we must now explain. 

499. 1st. When an adjective refers to two or more substan- 
tives this adjective is placed in the plural ; as, 

Kings and shepherds are equal after La roi et le berger sont 6gaux apres 
death. la mort. 

In order to understand this rule and apply it rightly, we must 
consider that the adjective may refer to persons or things : 

500. When it refers to persons, the above rule has no ex- 
ceptions ; as, 

Philemon and Baucis were virtuous Philemon et Baucis etaient simples et 
and simple. vertueux. 



124 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

501. When it refers to things, the noun may be used as a 
nominative or as regimen : if as a nominative, the agreement 
must take place ; as, 

Work and courage, united together, Le travail et le courage joints ensem- 
enable one to surmount every ob- ble font surmonter touts les obsta- 
stacle. cles. 

If used as regimen, the adjective must agree with the last ; as, 



He has his mouth and eyes open. II a la bouche et les yeux ouverts, 

or II a les yeux et la bouche ouverte. 

502. But when the adjective is the object of the verb to 5e, 
it agrees with both nouns ; as, 

His patience and firmness are inex- Sa patience et sa fermete sont int- 
haustible. puisables. 

503. 2d. When the adjective refers to two or several nouns 
of different genders, it agrees with the masculine and takes the 
plural ; as, 

My father and mother are satisfied. Mon pere et ma mere sont contents. 

504. The adjective always receives the law of the substan- 
tive, but has no influence over it ; consequently, several adjec- 
tives placed before a noun expressing but a single object of its 
kind do not require that noun in the plural ; thus, this phrase. 

The English and French languages Les langues Anglaise et Francaise 
are much cultivated, sont fort cultivees, 

is not grammatical ; we must turn it differently, and say, 

La langue Anglaise et la langue Francaise sont fort cultivees. 

505. But, if the adjective could be placed before the noun, 
which is not the case in the above sentence, Anglaise and 
Frangaise being adjectives of country and always following the 
nouns, or, if the article could idiomatically be placed before the 
adjective, then the repetition of the noun would not be neces- 
sary ; as, 

The first and second story. Le premier et le second etage. 

The ancient and modern history. L'histoire ancienne et la moderne. 

506. Two adjectives, the first being qualified by the second, 
remain both invariable ; as, 

Light-brown hair. Des cheveux chatain clair. 

Light-rose silks. Des soies rose lendre. 



ADJECTIVE. 125 

The reason of this rule is, that the first adjective is taken as 
a substantive ; it is as if we wrote, 

Des cheveux d'un chatain clair. 
Des soies d'un rose tendre. 

507. There are adjectives which, by the genius of the lan- 
guage, are always applied to persons, and others to things ; we 
must, then, take care never to qualify a person with an adjective 
which only belongs to things, and vice, versa. The following 
phrases are not French : 

A deplorable prince, Un prince deplorable. 

An inconsolable thing. Une chose inconsolable ; 

because the adjective deplorable is only applied to things in 
French, while inconsolable is only applied to persons. In or- 
der to use these two adjectives, properly applied, as above, we 
should say : 

A prince whose fate is deplorable. Un prince dont le sort est deplorable. 
A prince inconsolable in his grief. Un prince inconsolable dans sa dou- 

leur ; 

because then the two adjectives apply to the sort of nouns 
which they are made to qualify. 

508. There are expressions in which it seems difficult to 

know which is the noun with which the adjective must agree, 

but by analyzing the sentence the difficulty soon disappears ; 

as, 

This woman has a kind appearance. Cette femme a l'air bon. 
Your daughter appears to be witty. Votre fille a l'air spirituel. 

Many persons are inclined to write those sentences in this 

way : 

Cette femme a l'air bonne, 
Votre fille a l'air spirituel/e ; 

placing the adjectives in the feminine. If we reflect upon the 
meaning of those sentences, we find that they do not signify 
that the woman and the daughter are either good or witty, but 
their air is such ; consequently, it is upon the air and not the 
person, that the mind is directed, and the adjective should then 
agree with the former. 

509. When we say, 

White silk stockings, Des bas de soie blancs, 

11* 



126 FRENCH GRAMxMAR. 

our mind does not think of the silk as a material which, being 
used, renders the stockings white, but it is only struck by the 
idea of the stockings ; and stockings being masculine plural, the 
adjective must be of the same number and gender. 

510. But expressions like these : 

This apple seems to be cooked, Cette pomme a l'air cuit, 

These legs of mutton seem to be Ces gigots ont l'air cuit, 
roasted, 

although conforming to the preceding rule, are not correct ; be- 
cause we do not say, we cannot say, according to the genius of 
the language, un air cuit, an air cooked ; whereas, in the preceding 
examples, we say, very properly, un air bon, un air spiritual ; 
therefore, if we wish to express the ideas of an apple or a leg of 
mutton having the appearance of being cooked, we must turn 
the sentences differently, and say : 

Cette pomme a Pair d'etre cuite. 
Ces gigots ont l'air d'etre cuits. 

511. There is a difference of construction between French 
and English sentences, expressing measure, which it is proper 
to mention here. 

In English, the substantive of measure is placed before the 
noun or adjective expressing dimension ; as, 

A tower two hundred feet high, or in height. 

In French, the word which expresses dimension is placed 
first, if it be an adjective, and the preposition of, de, is added 
to it as a regimen ; as, 

Une tour haute de deux cents pieds. 

512. But, if it be an adjective taken substantively, or a sub- 
stantive itself, which expresses dimension, then it is placed 
after it, with the same preposition of, de, either before a noun 
of measure or dimension ; as, 

Une tour de deux cents pieds de haut, or de hauteur. 

513. The English manner of expressing dimensions is to 
use the verb to be ; as, 

The walls of Algiers are twelve feet high and thirty feet thick. 

In French, we generally use the verb to have, avoir, without 



ADJECTIVE. 127 

a preposition, and sometimes the verb to be, etre, with the prep- 
osition of, de ; as, 

Les murs d' Alger ont douze pieds de hauteur et trente pieds d'epaisseur. 
Les murs d'Alger sont de douze pieds de hauteur et de trente pieds d'epais- 
seur. 

514. It is more elegant to render the last part of the sen- 
tence with sur, upon, instead of de, of, and say : 

Les murs d'Alger ont douze pieds de hauteur sur trente pieds d'epaisseur. 
Les murs d'Alger sont de douze pieds de hauteur sur trente pieds d'epais- 
seur. 

But the first locution of the two last is most generally 
adopted. 

515. In comparative sentences, the English, to express dif 
ference, turn their phrases in this way ; as, 

She is taller than her sister by the whole head. 
But, 

Elle est plus grande que sa sceur de toute la tete, 

is the French construction to be adopted in similar cases. 



OP THE ADJECTIVE WITH THE ARTICLE. 

516. Adjectives expressing only modes and qualities are not 
preceded by the article except in a few instances, which will 
be explained afterwards ; thus we say, without an article, 

Men are often good or bad only for Les hommes sont souvent bons ou 
the reason, that they have re- mauvais, par cela seul qu'ils ont 
ceived good or bad examples. re§u de bons ou de mauvais exem- 

ples. 

517. But adjectives used as nouns are, like nouns, preceded 
by the article, if the case requires it ; as, 

Fools invent fashions and wise men Lesfous inventent les modes, et les 
conform to them. sages s'y conforment. 

518. When a noun is accompanied by two adjectives ex- 
pressing opposite qualifications, the article must be repeated be- 
fore each adjective ; as, 



128 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

The old and the new-raised soldiers Les vieux et les nouveaux soldats 

are fall of ardor. sont remplis d'ardeur. 

A man who cares for his reputation Un homme qui est jaloux de sa re- 
ought to frequent good and avoid putation doit frequenter la bonne 
bad company. compagnie etfuir la mauvaise. 

The reason of this is, that adjectives opposite in significa- 
tion cannot at the same time modify the same substantive ; a 
soldier cannot be young and old at once, and company cannot 
be both good and bad. Then there is an ellipsis in the two 
above examples, of the word soldier after old, and of the word 
company after good, and the existence of two nouns requires 
the use of the article before each, their meaning being definite. 

519. But, if the qualifications expressed by the adjectives 
are similar, the noun being jointly modified by them, the ellip- 
sis does not exist, and consequently the article is not repeated ; 
as, 

The wise and pious Fenelon. Le sage et vertueux Fenelon. 

There being but one individual who is wise and pious. 

520. When the qualifications, without being incompatible, 
are somewhat different, it is correct to repeat the article, al- 
though not indispensable ; as, 

The sensible and ingenious Fene- Le sensible et l'ingenieux Fenelon. 
Ion, 

Here one of the qualities belongs to the mind, the other to 

the heart ; but in general the ear must be consulted in cases 

similar to this in preference to rules. 

521. Before adjectives prefixed to proper names, either to 

express their qualities, or to distinguish the person spoken 

of from those who might bear the same name, the article is 

used ; thus we say, 

The sublime Bossuet, Le sublime Bossuet. 

The virtuous Fenelon, Le vertueux Fenelon. 

The tender Racine, Le tendre Racine. 

Henry the Great, Henry le Grand. 

Louis the Fat, Louis le Gros. 

Louis the Beloved, Louis le Bien-aime. 

522. The adjective preceding the noun shows but a distinct 
quality, but, when following it, points out the noun as a par- 
ticular one among others like it. The above examples demon- 
strate the truth of this remark. 



ADJECTIVE. 129 

When a superlative relative precedes a substantive, the 
article serves for both ; as, 

The ablest men sometimes commit Les plus habiles gens font souvent les 
the grossest blunders. plus grandes fautes. 

523. But if it follows the substantive, the article must be 
repeated ; 

Les gens les plus habiles font souvent les fautes les plus grandes. 

When two or more superlatives modify a noun, the sign of 
the superlative, either relative or absolute, must be repeated 
before each adjective ; as, 

It is equally the custom of the most C'est egalement la coutume des 
barbarous and the most civilized peuples les plus barbares et les 
people. plus civilises. 

and not, 

C'est egalement la coutume des peuples les plus barbares et civilises. 

This is in conformity to the rule already laid down, which 
says, that two adjectives of opposite meaning cannot qualify the 
same noun without the article being placed before both. 

524. We have seen by the preceding rules, that when the 
article is used with the adjective, it always precedes it ; but 
there is an exception. 

525. The adjective, all, tout, when employed with the arti- 
cle, always precedes it ; thus we say, 

Everybody says that you are a Tout le monde dit que vous etes un 
rogue. coquin. 



REGIMEN OF ADJECTIVES 



526. The regimen of an adjective may be a substantive, or 
a verb preceded by a preposition. 

527. Some adjectives have no regimen, because they have 
in themselves a complete, determined, and fixed signification ; 



as. 



Courageous, courageux. 

Brave, brave. 

Wise, sage, &c. 



130 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

528. Some must have a regimen, because they ought to be 

restricted, to have a determined signification ; as, 

Able, capable. 

Ready, pret. 

Willing, dispose, &c. 

529. Some, in fine, sometimes have a regimen, sometimes 
not. They have a regimen, when what we wish to express 
requires restriction. 

They have no regimen when employed by the mind in a 

general sense ; as, 

Sensible, sensible. 

Contented, content. 

Sorry, fache, &c. 

530. Rule. We must not give a regimen to an adjective 
which should have none, and we must be careful not to give 
any, which is not authorized by usage. 

The application of this rule presents some difficulty ; it 
depends principally upon habit, which can be acquired only by 
time, and is often opposed to the rules of the language. 

We shall hereafter give a list of the adjectives most gener- 
ally used, with all the indications necessary to enable pupils to 
apply them right ; but we cannot insist too much upon the 
remark, that time, and reading good authors, can alone give a 
complete knowledge of this difficulty. 

531. Before using an adjective it must be ascertained wheth- 
er it may be used in regard to persons, or to things ; we have 
already given some intimations about it, but we shall now state 
how to ascertain either of these two cases. 

532. The adjectives which apply to persons are generally 
those which come from verbs which may have persons for their 
direct objects ; thus, although we may say, une action pardon- 
nable, une faute deplorable, we cannot say, une personne par- 
donnable, un prince deplorable, because, although we may say, 
pardonner une action, deplorer une faute, we cannot say, ac- 
cording to usage, pardonner une personne, deplorer un prince. 

533. Another difficulty is, to ascertain which are the ad- 
jectives that may be restricted by verbs alone ; for then it is a 
fault to give them a substantive as an object ; in this phrase, 
for instance, 



PRONOUN. 131 

Impatient du joug et de la con- Impatient of yoke and restraint, 
train te, 

the adjective impatient is used improperly, because usage has 

determined that it should be restricted by a verb ; so we say 

correctly, 

Impatient de commander, Impatient of command, 

and not, impatient du commandement. (See, at the end of the 

Grammar, a list of Adjectives with the prepositions which they 

govern.) 



OF THE PRONOUN. 



534. The Pronoun is a word which takes the place of a 
noun. 

Although this definition is applicable to some of the words 
called pronouns, yet there are some among them which would 
be better called adjectives, because they are never employed 
without being joined to nouns ; but we shall keep this denomi- 
nation for all, because they are generally qualified by that appel- 
lation, and sometimes clearness is preferable to precision. 

534. The pronouns are of great service in languages ; they 
not only save repetitions which would be insupportable and 
hard, but they spread over the style a clearness, animation, 
variety, and grace, which would not exist without their assist- 
ance. 

In this passage, for instance, which we extract from the 
works of the Abbot Girard ; 

The grammar ought to follow the II faut que la grammaire soit con- 
genius of the language of which duite par le genie de la langue 
it treats ; its method ought to be qu'e/Ze traite ; que la methode en 
clear and facile ; it should not soit nette et facile ; qu'e//e n'o- 
omit any of the laws consecrated mette aucune des lois consacrees 
by good practice; it should be par J 'usage ; et que tout y soit 
definite, precise, and illustrated exactement defini, ainsi qu'eclaire 
by examples, so that ignorant par des exemples, afin que les 
people may learn it, and the ignorants puissent Z'apprendre, et 
learned may approve it. que les savants lui donnent lew 

approbation. 

536. The words, elle, en, y, l\ lui, leur, are pronouns, 

which replace the nouns, grammaire and savant. If, instead 



132 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

of them, we repeat the words themselves, the sentence is not 
tolerable, and presents the most ridiculous specimen of style ; 
as, 

II faut que la, grammaire soit conduite par le genie de la langue que le gram- 
maire traite ; que la methode de la grammaire soit nette et facile ; que 
la grammaire n'omette aucune des lois consacrees par l'usage ; et que 
tout dans la grammaire soit defini, ainsi qu'eclaire par des exemples, 
afin que les ignorants puissent apprendre la grammaire, et que les 
savants donnent a la grammaire l'approbation des savants. 

537. We shall divide the pronouns into six different classes ; 

1. Personal Pronouns. 

2. Possessive " 

3. Relative " 

4. Absolute " 

5. Demonstrative " 

6. Indefinite. " 



OP PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

538. Personal pronouns are those which are used to desig- 
nate persons and things. 
There are three persons ; 
The First is that who speaks. 
The Second is that who is spoken to. 
The Third is that who is spoken of. 
Personal pronouns may be nominatives or objectives. 

539. Of Personal Pronouns Nominative. 

1 Person, sing. masc. and fem. I, je, I speak, je parle. 

2 " " " Thou, tu, thou speakest, tu paries. 

3 " " masc. He, il, he speaks, il parle. 

3 " " fem. She, elle, she speaks, elle parle. 

ti a „„ „„ j r t* S il or ) it rains, il pleut. 

3 masc. and fem. It, J ^ £ [t |g ^ J Q ^ no[ ^ 

[speaking of a carriage. 

1 Person, plur. masc. and fem. We, nous, we speak, nous parlons. 

2 " " " You, vous, you speak, vous parlez. 

3 " " masc. They, ils, they speak, ils parlent. 

3 " " fem. They, elles, they speak, elles parlent. 

540. In the interrogative form, these pronouns are used as 
follows ; 



PRONOUN. 133 



i 

? 

! ? 



Do I speak ? parle-je . 

Dost thou speak ? parles-tu 

Does he speak ? parle-t-il . 

Does she speak ? parle-t-elle 

Does it rain ? pleut-il ? 

Is it black ? est-elle noire ? \ ( S P eakin g of 

( a carriage.) 
Do we speak ? parlons-nous ? 

Do you speak ? parlez-vous ? 

Do they speak ? parlent-ils ? S ( S P eakin § °f 

Do they speak? parlent-elles ? \ \y^™*\ 

Of Personal Pronouns Objective. 

541. Personal Pronouns may be employed objectively ; 
directly without a preposition, or indirectly with a preposition. 
The verb may be affirmative or interrogative. 

Of Personal Pronouns employed as direct objects in the 
affirmative form. 



Me, 


me, 


he sees me, 


il me voit. 


Thee, 


te, 


he sees thee, 


il te voit. 


Him, 


le, 


he sees him, 


il le voit. 


Her, 


la, 


he sees her, 


il la voit. 


It, 


le or la, 


he sees it, 


il le or la voit 


Us, 


nous, 


he sees us, 


il nous voit. 


You, 


vous, 


he sees you, 


il vous voit. 


Them, masc. 


& fern, les, 


he sees them, 


il les voit. 



542. It is seen by this table, that the objective English 
pronouns, me, thee, him, her, it, us, you, them, are expressed 
in French by me, te, le, la, le or la, nous, vous, les, placed 
before the verb. 

543. Of Personal Pronouns employed as direct objects in the 
interrogative form. 

Me, 

Thee, 

Him, her, 

It, 

Us, 

You, 

Them, masc. & fem. les, 



12 



me, 


does he see me ? 


me voit-il ? 


te, 


does he see thee ? 


te voit-il ? 


le, la, 


does he see him or her ? 


le or la voit-il ? 


le, la, 


does he see it ? 


le or la voit-il ? 


nous, 


does he see us ? 


nous voit-il ? 


vous, 


does he see you ? 


vous voit-il ? 


les, 


does he see them ? 


les voit-il ? 



134 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

544. Of Personal Pronouns employed as indirect objects in the 
affirmative form, with the preposition, to, a. 

To me, me, he speaks to me, il me parle. 

To thee, te, he speaks to thee, il te parle. 

To him, to her, lui he speaks to him, to her, il lui parle. 

To us, nous, he speaks to us, il nous parle. 

To you, vous, he speaks to you, il vous parle. 

To them, masc. & fem. leur, he speaks to them, il leur parle. 

545. It is seen by this table, that we express to me, to thee, 
to him, to her, to it, to us, to you, to them, by me, te, lui, lui, 
lui, nous, vous, leur, placed before the verb. 

546. Of Personal Pronouns used as indirect objects in the 
interrogative form, with the preposition to, a. 

To me, me, do you speak to me ? me parlez-vous ? 

To thee, te, do we speak to thee ? te parlons-nous ? 

To him, to her, lui, do you speak to him, to her? lui parlez-vous ? 

To us, nous, do you speak to us ? • nous parlez-vous? 

To you, vous, do we speak to you ? vows parlons-nous? 

To them, leur, do you speak to them ? leur parlez-vous ? 

547. Although this mode of expressing the personal pro- 
nouns applied to persons in the above manner with the prepo- 
sition to, is the most generally used, some verbs require 
another form ; with these, the pronoun must be placed after the 
verb, the preposition to, a, be expressed, and the construc- 
tion be as follows ; 

548. 
To me, a moi, you think of me, \ ^r e JnU \ vous pensez a moi. 

To thee, a toi, I think of thee, " je pense a toi. 

To him, to her, alui, aelle,lthink of him, of her, " je pense alui, a elle. 

To us, a nous, he thinks of us, " il pense a nous. 

To you, a vous, he thinks of you, " il pense h vous. 

To them, a eux, m. you think of them, " vous pensez a eux. 

To them, a elles, f. you think of them, " vous pensez a elles. 

549. In the interrogative form these pronouns keep the 
same place, after the verb, and are expressed in the same 
manner. 

550. We have omitted in the above lists to express the pro- 
noun it, with the preposition to, as well as them, applied to 
things, because they require some explanations peculiar to 
themselves. These two words, to it, and to them, applied to 
things, are generally rendered by the letter y, which then be- 
comes a contracted pronoun ; but in some instances by lui and 
leur. To him, to her, to them, (this last referring to persons,) 
are also, sometimes, expressed by y, as follows ; 



PRONOUN. 



135 



To it, (speaking of things,) y. 



lui, \ 



lui, 



( This reason is good, I yield to it. 
< Cette raison est bonne, je m'y 
( rends. 

My horse is sick, an operation will 

be necessary for him, 
Mon cheval est malade, il faudra lui 
[_ faire une operation. 

f Your mare does not look well, you 
J ought to cut off her tail, 
j Votre jument n'a pas bonne mine, 
(_ il faut lui couper la queue. 

("Your friend is absent, we often 
J think of him, (to him, in French,) 
j Votre ami est absent, nous y pen- 
(_ sons souvent. (for, a lui.) 

("Your sister is sick, we often think 
J of her, (to her, in French,) 
1 Votre soeur est malade, nous y pen- 
l_ sons souvent. (for, aelle.) 

fYour arguments are good, I see no 
reply to them, 
Vos raisons sont bonnes, je n'y vois 
point de replique. 

("Your cattle are sick, you must give 
J them medicine, (ibr, to them,) 
j Vos bestiaux sont malades, il faut 
{_ leur donner une potion. 

Your brother and sister have been 
absent, we very often think of 
them, (for, to them,) 

Votre frere et votre sceur ont ete 
absents, nous y avons pense bien 
souvent, (for a eux.) 

551. But although to him, to her, and to them, applied to 
persons, may thus be expressed by y, and to it sometimes by 
lui, it must be remembered that this is only applicable in a few 
cases, which are the result of usage, and consequently much 
discrimination must be used in regard to them. We will here- 
after give more explanations and illustrations about it. 

552. Of Personal Pronouns employed with the preposition 

of, de. 



To it, 



To it, (feminine,) 



To him, 



To her, 



To them, (relating to things,) y, 



To them, (relating to things,) leur, 



To them, (relating to persons,) y , 



Of me, de moi, 

Of thee, de toi, 

Of him, delui, 

Of her, d'elle, 

Of us, de nous, 

Of you, de vous, 
Of them, (m. of pers.) d'eux, 

Of them, (fern. " d'elles, 



you speak of me. 
I speak of thee, 
I speak of him, 
I speak of her, 
he speaks of us, 
I speak of you, 
I speak of them, 
I speak of them, 



vous parlez de moi, 
je parle de toi. 
je parle de lui. 
je parle d'elle. 
il parle de nous. 
je parle de vous. 
je parle d'eux. 
je parle d'elles. 



136 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



553. Of him, of her, and of them, speaking of persons, may 
also be rendered by en, which is then a contracted pronoun ; 
and of it (masculine and feminine), as well as of them, referring 
to things, are almost always expressed by the same word, 
en : as, 



Of it (speaking 
of things) 



er; 



Of him 



Of her, 



en 



{ This reason is good, I confess it (of it). 
( Cette raison est bonne, j'en conviens. 
("This boat soon left us behind it. 
nr it •or.osin'nrr > I ^e Dateau nous laissa bientot loin de 

of S \ de lui ' d ' elle < lui » 

^ ' Cette barque nous laissa bientot loin 

L d'elle. 

("Your brother is absent, we speak of 
I him very often. 

j Votre frere est absent, nous en par- 
(_ Ions bien souvent. 

("Your sister is beautiful, we are jealous 
j of her. 

j Votre sceur est belle, nous en sommes 
[_ jalouses. 

Those apples are very fine, give me 

some (of them). 
Ces pommes sont tres belles, donnez 
l_ m'en quelques unes. 

These boats go very fast, they will 

leave us far (from them) behind 

them. 
Ces bateaux vont tres vite, ils nous 

laisseront loin cfeux, 
Ces barques vont tres vite, elles nous 

laisseront loin d? elles. 

TYour brothers are absent, we often 
speak of them. 
Vos freres sont absents, nous en parl- 
ons souvent. 



Of them (speak- ) 
ing of things) 5 n 



k -}d'eux,d'e!les 



ing of things) 



Of them (speak- ) 
ing of persons) 5 



Your sisters are sick, we often speak 
of them. 
i Vos sceurs sont malades, nous en par- 
l- Ions souvent. 

554. Of him, of her, of them (speaking of persons), are as 
well rendered by en, as by de lui, oVelle, oVeux, oV elles ; but it is 
only in few cases that of it and of them (speaking of things) 
should be expressed by de lui, d'elle, oVeux, d 'elles ; they are 
generally rendered by en placed before the verb. 

555. It results, from the preceding tables, that the personal 
pronouns in most cases are placed before the verbs with or 
without contraction, when used objectively. But, if the verb 



PRONOUN. 



137 



is in the imperative mood, then those pronouns are placed after 
it, and receive the following modifications : 

Kill me, (direct) 

Speak to me, (indirect) 

Think of me, (to me, in French) 

(indirect) 
Speak of me, 



Tuez moi. 
Parlez moi. 
Pensez a moi. 

Parlez de moi. 



556. The pronouns of the second person singular and plural 
are only used in the imperative in the reflective form, and we 
will speak of them hereafter. 



Love him, (direct) 


Aimez-le. 


Love her, " 


Aimez-la. 


Love it, 


Aimez-le, or la, or ceci, or cela 


Speak to him, or to her, (indirect) 


Parlez-lui. 


Think of him (to him), " 


Pensez-a-lui. 


Think of her (to her), " 


Pensez-a-elle. 


Think of it (to it), 


Pensez-y. 


Speak of him, of her, " 


Parlez-de-lui, or d'elle, or en. 


Speaktof it, " 


Parlez-en. 


Love us, (masc. orfem.) (direct) , 


Aimez-nous. 


Speak to us, " (indirect) 


Parlez-nous. 


Think of us (to us), " " 


Pensez-a-nous. 


Love them, " (direct) 


Aimez-les. 


Speak to them, (speaking of per- 




sons) 


Parlez-leur. 


Think of them, (to them) (speaking 




of persons) 


Pensez-a-eux, or a elles. 


Think of them, (speaking of things) 


Pensez-y. 


Speak of them, (speaking of per- 




sons) 


Parlez-d'eux, d'elles, en. 


Speak of them, (speaking of things) 


Parlez-en. 



557. It results from the preceding table, that among the per- 
sonal pronouns used objectively, some are always placed after 
the verb, and others sometimes before and sometimes after it. 

558. The objective pronouns, always used after verbs, are : 



Me, or to me, 
Thee, or to thee, 
Her, 
Them, 



Moi. 
Toi. 
Elle. 
Eux, 



elles. 



559. The objective pronouns, always used before the verb, 



are 



Me, or to me, Me. 

Thee, to thee, T e . 

Himself or herself, themselves, Se. 

To himself or herself, to themselves, Se. 



12 



138 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



560. Lui and eux, elle and elles, moi and toi, are used some- 
times with, and sometimes without, a preposition. 

561. Me, te, and se are never used with a preposition. 

562. The objective pronouns used sometimes before and 
sometimes after the verb are : 



Him, it, 
Her, it, 


to. J 

la. 5 


Them, les. 


To him, to her, 


lui. 


To them, (speak- 
ing of persons) leur. 


To it, 


y. 


To them, y. 


Of it, 


en. 


Of them, en. 


Us, to us, 


nous. 




You, to you, 


vous. 





563. Of these pronouns, lui, nous, and vous are used with 
and without prepositions ; but /e, la, les, y, and en always pre- 
cede or follow the verb without any. 



564. Of Reflective Pronouns. 



Myself 
To myself 

a 

Thyself 
To thyself 



Himself 

Herself 

To himself 

To herself 

Of himself 

Of herself 

Itself 

Ourselves 

To ourselves 
To ourselves 
Yourselves 



me 
me 
a moi 
te 

te 

a toi 

se (lui meme) 

se (elle meme) 

se (a lui meme) 

se (a elle m6me) 

C de lui, or de lui 
I meme 
f d'elle, or d'elle 
I meme 

se 
C nous (nous 
( memes) 

c nous (a nous 
I memes) 

C a nous (a nous 
I memes) 

C v ous a (vous 
I memes) 



I love myself 
I speak to myself 
I think of myself 
Thou lovest thyself 
Thou speakest to 

thyself 
Thou thinkest of 

thyself 

He loves himself 
She loves herself 



TT i . v , ~( il se parle (a lui 

He speaks to hirnseli < m # m e) 

She speaks to herself £ ellemSne) * 

tt i ru- ,.cilparledelui,or 

He speaks of himself £ de lui m ^ me 

„, ,'"■/•"-, ir r elle parle d'elle 

She speaks of herself | or d , elle m6me 

The fire is going out le feu s'eteint 

We love ourselves 



je m'aime 
je me parle 
je pense a moi 
tu t'aimes 

£ tu te paries 

> tu penses a, toi 

Cil s'aime (lui 
( meme) 
£ elle s'aime (elle 
( m^me) 



We speak to our- 
selves 



We think 
selves 



of our- 



You love yourselves 



nous nous ai- 

mons 
nous nous par- 
Ions (a nous 

memes) 
nous pensons a 

nous (a nous 

memes) 
vous vous ai- 

mez (vous 

memes) 



PRONOUN. 139 



, Cvous (a vous You speak to your- S v 7 p s /° us P a J" 
To yourselves \ mgm v es) seh £ s £ mimes) 

, (a vous (a vous You think of ^S^f&^L* 
To yourselves \ m g mes) v selves j ™Z£ 

m, i „ /™~ m & m oe\ They love them- ils s'aiment 

Themselves se (eux memes) J^ (eux memes) 

, . „ a X They love them- elles s'aiment 

Themselves se (elles memes) J^ (elles m«mes) 

To themselves se(aeu X memes) Thereat ,o them- ft-F£«£ 

To themselves se(aelles memes) The^speak to them- eUe^se parient 

Themselves > The fires are m leg feux ^. 

(speaking of ^se out gnent 

thmgS) [One loves one's self on s'aime (soi- 

One'sself se, soi, soi meme <> , meme) 

j One loves but one's on n'aime que 

L self soi (soi-meme) 

TOne speaks to one's on se parle (a 

rp , lf C se, a soi, a soi J self soi-meme) 

10 ones sen £ m * me < Qne thinkg of one , g on pense ^ soi 

[_ self (a soi-meme) 

565. It results from this table, that the reflective pronouns 
me, te, and se, are always placed before the verb without a 
preposition ; whereas toi, moi, lui, elle, nous, vous, eux, and 
elles, with or without the adjective meme, and with or without 
a preposition, always follow the verb. Time and practice are 
the only sure guides in this case, as in many others. 



Of Reciprocal Personal Pronouns. 

566. The idea of reciprocity implying, at least, the exist- 
ence of two persons, the reciprocal pronoun is only used with 
the three plural personal pronouns, nous, vous, and ils or 
elles. 

567. Reciprocal verbs are always reflective ; consequently, 
the verbs used to express reciprocity must be accompanied by 
the reflective pronouns. 

568. The reciprocity expressed by the verb may be between 
two or more persons or things. 



140 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

569. When between two persons or things only, the recip- 
rocal pronoun is used in the singular ; when between more than 
two, it is placed in the plural ; as, 

First Person. 

We love each other, one another, Nous nous aimons l'un l'autre. 
We love each other, Nous nous aimons les uns les au- 

tres. 

Singular. Plural (more than two). 

We exchange trifles, 
Nous nous faisons des presents l'un Nous nous faisons des presents les 
a l'autre, uns aux autres. 

We speak of each other, 
Nous parlons l'un de l'autre, Nous parlons les uns des autres. 

Second Person. 

Singular. Plural. 

You love each other, one another, 
Vous vous aimez l'un l'autre, Vous vous aimez les uns les autres. 

You exchange trifles, 
Vous vous faits des presents l'un a, Vous vous faits des presents les 
l'autre, uns aux autres. 

You speak of each other, 
Vous parlez l'un de l'autre, Vous parlez les uns des autres. 

Third Person. 

Singular. Plural. 

They love each other, 
lis s'aiment l'un l'autre, Us s'aiment les uns les autres. 

They exchange trifles, 
lis se font des presents l'un a. l'au- lis se font des presents les uns aux 
tre, autres. 

They speak of each other, 
lis parlent l'un de l'autre, Us parlent les uns des autres. 

These horses will kill each other, 
Ces chevaux se tueront l'un l'autre, Ces chevaux se tueront les uns les 

autres. 

These houses are a nuisance to each other, 
Ces maisons se nuisent l'une a l'au- Ces maisons se nuisent les unes aux 
tre, autres. 

These rooms communicate one with the other, 
Ces chambres dependent l'une de Ces chambres dependent les unes 
l'autre, des autres. 



PRONOUN. 141 



Of Personal Pronouns used as Nominatives. 

570. When, instead of one, there are several pronouns of 
different persons used as nominatives, the following rule must 
be observed : 

571. The person who speaks is always mentioned the last, 
the person addressed is named first, and the verb is preceded 
by the plural pronoun of the first person, if a pronoun of the 
first person is among those employed as nominatives ; as, 

You and I will go hunting- to- Vous et moi, nous irons a la chasse 
morrow. demain. 

572. If there is no pronoun of the first person among the 
nominatives, then the verb is preceded by the pronoun of the 
second person plural ; as, 

You and he will go hunting to- Lui et vous, vous irez a la chasse de- 
morrow, main. 

573. If the pronouns of the three persons singular or plural 
are employed as nominatives, the verb is preceded by the pro- 
noun of the first person plural ; as, 

He, you, and I will go hunting to- Lui, vous, et moi, nous irons a la 
morrow. chasse demain. 

574. We could say, as well, 

Nous irons a la chasse demain, lui, vous et moi ; 

but the order in which the pronouns are placed in regard to 
each other must never be altered. 

575. Among the personal pronouns used as nominatives, je 9 
tu, nous, and vous are of either gender ; as, 

Masculine. Feminine. 

I am good. Je suis bon, Je suis bonne. 

Thou art good. Tu es bon, Tu es bonne. 

We are good. Nous sommes bons, Nous sommes bonnes. 

You are good, Vous etes bons, Vous etes bonnes. 

576. II is masculine singular ; elle, feminine singular ; Us, 
masculine plural ; elles, feminine plural ; as, 

He is lazy, II est paresseux. 

She is lazy, Elle est paresseuse. 

They are lazy, J gf. sont P^esseux. 

J J ' I Elles sont paresseuses, 

577. Although personal pronouns nominative are generally 
placed before the verb, there are several exceptions ; as, 



142 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

578. 1st. When used interrogatively, as has already been 
stated. 

579. 2d. When the verb is in the subjunctive mood without 
a conjunction expressed before it ; as, 

May I with my own eyes see the Puisse-^'e de mes yeux voir tomber 
thunder fall ! la foudre ! 

580. 3d. When the verb forms a proposition, which shows 
that the words of some person are referred to ; as, 

I shall be dissatisfied, said he, if Je serai mecontent, dit-z7, si vous re- 
yoa repeat my words. petez mes paroles. 

581. 4th. When the verb is preceded by any of the follow- 
ing adverbs : 

Therefore, thus, aussi. At least, for all 

Perhaps, peut-etre. that, &c, toujours. 

Still, encore. Vainly, en vain, vainement 

At least, aumoins,dumoins. 

Therefore the king is very powerful. Aussi le roi est-?7 tres puissant. 

Perhaps we shall go to-morrow in- Peut-etre irons-nows demain a e la 

to the country. campagne. 

Still it is true, that you did behave Encore est-il vrai que vous vous con- 
badly, duisites tres mal. 

At least, it is certain that he is a Toujours est-il certain que c'est un 

rogue. coquin. 

Vainly did he try to stop my horse. En vain essaya-t-z7 d'arreter mon 

cheval. 

At least, it is certain that you have Du moins, au moins est-il certain 

deceived me. que vous m'avez trompe. 

582. This exception is not absolute, for it would not be a 
fault against the language to place the pronoun before the verb, 
but then the locution would be flat and deprived of grace and 
elegance. 

583. Sometimes the personal pronouns nominative are omit- 
ted, and replaced by moi, toi, lui, elle, nous, vous, eux, and 
elks, which have been represented as being used objectively ; 
but then the sentence is elliptical, and the mind has to supply 
the want of the personal pronouns ; as, 

I, betray the best of my friends ! Moi, trahir le meilleur de mes amis ! 

Je voudrais is here understood before moi, and moi is the 
subject only by apposition or reduplication. 
Thou, be guilty of such cowardice ! Toi, commettre une telle lachete ! 

Tu pourrois is understood before toi. 



PRONOUN. 143 

He, leave his country in the time Lui, quitter son pays au moment du 
of danger ! danger ! 

11 pourroit, is understood before lui. 

She, to have murdered her own Elle, avoir tue son propre enfant ! 
child ! 

Elk pourroit is here understood before elk. 

584. The pronouns moi, toi, lui, &c. could also be placed 

at the end of the sentence in locutions similar to these, and 

even used conjointly with the personal pronouns nominative, je, 

tu, il, &c. as, 

I do maintain that you are a villain. Je pretends, moi, que vous etes un 

vilain. 

Thou sayest then, that thou art Tu dis done, toi, que tu as raison, 

right. &c. 

I, whose character he is destroy- Moi, dont il dechire le caractere, 

ing, always have heen kind to j'ai toujours ete bon pour lui. 

him. 

585. These same pronouns, moi, toi, lui, &c. are likewise 
used as nominatives in impersonal phrases with the pronouns il, 
ce, &c. as, 

Who was sorry for all which had Qui fut fache de tout ce qui a ete 

been done ? it was I. fait ? ce fut moi. 

How many do remain of your past Combien de vos anciens amis vous 

friends ? I. reste-t-il ? Moi. 

586. Those phrases are elliptical, and may be turned in this 

way : 

Qui fut fache de ce qui a ete fait ? je fas le seul, &c. 
Combien de vos anciens amis vous reste-t-il ? je suis le seul, &c. 

587. The same pronouns may be also used as nominatives, 
when joined to a noun by a conjunction ; as, 

My father and I, we have been Mon pere et-moi, nous sommes al- 
hunting. les a la chasse. 

588. The personal pronouns, toi and vous, may be used as 
nominatives in an apostrophe, preceded or not by the interjec- 
tions, oh ! ah ! as, 

Thou, whose smile is the delight of Toi ! or O toi,' dont le sourire fait 
my life ! le bonheur de ma vie ! 

You, whom I love; you, who are the Vous! O vous! que j'aime, vous ! 
cause of all my sorrows. qui etes la cause de toutes mes 

douleurs ! 

589. The objective pronouns, lui and eux, maybe employed 
as subjects in distributive sentences, without being in apposi- 
tion ; as. 



144 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

My friends and my brother assisted Mes amis et mon frere m'ont se- 
me when I fell ; they took me couru dans ma chute, eux m'ont 
up, he dressed my wounds. releve, lui a panse mes blessures. 

590. There can never be any ambiguity or doubt in regard 
to the noun which the personal pronouns of the first and second 
persons, singular or plural, represent, but it is not the same with 
those of the third person ; the following rule must then be ob- 
served : 

591. The nominative pronouns, il, elle, Us, dies, must al- 
ways refer to a noun, either nominative or objective, employ- 
ed definitely ; but never to both, nor to a noun taken in an 
indefinite meaning ; thus the following sentence is correct : 

Nature, as a minister of the irrevo- Ministre des ordres irrevocables de 

cable decrees of God, never de- Dieu, la nature ne s'ecarte jamais 

viates from the laws which it has des lois qtfelle a re§ues delui; 

received from him ; it does not die n'altere en rien,les plans qui 

alter in any way his plans, and lui ont ete traces, et dans tout 

in all it accomplishes, it shows ce qu'elle accomplit, die presente 

the seal of the Almighty. le sceau de L'Eternel. 

Because the personal pronoun elle refers to nature, a nomina- 
tive used in a definite manner. 

Slavery does not prevent the hap- L'esclavage n'empeche pas le bon- 
piness of the slave when he has heur de Vesclave, quand il n'a 
not enjoyed the gift of liberty. pas joui du bienfait de la liberte. 

This sentence is correct, because il refers to esclave, which is 
used as the object of the noun bonheur, and is taken definitely. 

592. But the following sentence, 

Racine has imitated Euripides, in Racine a imite Euripide dans tout 
all that he has beautiful in his ce quHl a de plus beau dans sa 
Phedra. Phedre. 

is incorrect, because il is used after two nouns, one being nom- 
inative, the other objective, and may relate to either Racine 
or Euripides ; the phrase then is ambiguous, and therefore in- 
correct. 

This sentence also is incorrect ; 

You have the right of chase, and I Vous avez droit de chasse, et je le 
think it well founded. trouve fonde, or, il est fonde se- 

lon moi. 

because, in the first mode of translation, le, the objective per- 
sonal pronoun, and in the second, il, the nominative personal 
pronoun, refer to droit de chasse, which is used indefinitely, 
not being preceded by an article. 



PRONOUN. 145 

593. The following sentence is also incorrect : 

No peace for the wicked ; he seeks Nulle paix pour le mechant ; il la 
it, it flies. cherche, elle fuit. 

because la, the objective, and die,, the nominative pronouns, 
refer to nulle paix, when the meaning of the sentence re- 
quires that it should relate to paix in the affirmative. 

594. This rule, which results from the necessity of clear- 
ness, so much required in the French language, is one of the 
most difficult in its application, and requires the constant atten- 
tion of the writer. 

595. In the impersonal verbs, it, il, does not seem to take 
the place of a noun, as in the following phrases : 

It rains. 11 pleut. 

Many events have passed. II s'est passe bien des evenements. 

but the first sentence is elliptical, and means, le del (il) pleut, 
and the second could be constructed in this way : bien des 
evenements (il) se sont passes. 



Repetition of the Personal Pronouns. 

596. Personal pronouns of the first and second person sin- 
gular or plural, must be repeated before each verb when em- 
ployed as nominatives, when these verbs are in different tenses ; 
but may not be repeated where the verbs are in the same tense ; 
this is a matter of taste. 

I maintain, and will always main- Je soutiens et je soutiendrai tou- 

tain, that one cannot be happy jours qu'on ne peut etre heureux 

without virtue. sans la vertu. 

You have always told me, and you Vous m'avez toujours dit, et vous 

repeat it now, that, in order to be me le repetez aujourd'hui, que 

happy, we must never look above pour 6tre heureux, il ne faut ja- 

ourselves, but always below. mais regarder an-dessus de soi, 

mais toujours au-dessous. 

597. The pronouns, je, and vous, are repeated here because 
the verbs are not in the same tense, but the following phrases, 

I say and maintain, &c, 5 { e f* et maintiens, 

I Je dis etje maintiens, 
Vous pensez et croye; 
Vous pensez et vous croyez, 



You think and believe, 5 Z? us P ensez et cr °y ez ' 



13 



146 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

are equally correct, with or without the repetition of the pro- 
noun, the verbs being in the same tense. 

598. The personal pronouns nominative of the third person 
singular and plural, are not generally repeated when the verbs 
are in the same tense ; and when the verbs are in different ten- 
ses, the repetition may be dispensed with : 

He has never been and will never II n'a jamais rien valu, et (il) or ne 

be worth any thing. vaudra jamais rien. 

A graceful manner spoils nothing, La grace ne gate jamais rien, elle 

it adds to beauty, heightens mod- ajoute a la beaute, releve la mo- 

esty and gives it lustre. destie et y donne du lustre. 

He arrived this morning and will 11 est arrive' ce matin et il repartira 

depart again this evening. ce soir. 

599. We have said generally when speaking of verbs used 
in the same tense ; it is because sometimes the pronouns must 
be repeated ; as, 

600. 1st. When plural verbs succeed each other in the same 

tense, and we wish to suppress the conjunction and before the 

last, so as to give more power to the meaning of the sentence, 

the pronouns must be repeated ; as, 

Deceitful, cunning, hypocritical, Fourbes, adroits, hypocrites, dan- 
dangerous, they flatter, they ca- gereux, Us flattent, Us caressent, 
ress, they surround with entice- Us environnent de seductions, 
ments. 

This phrase, without the repetition of the pronouns, and with 

the conjunction et before the last verb, would be without force, 

and flat. 

601. 2d. When in a sentence several verbs are employed 
in the same tense, and one of them has an object different from 
the others, the pronoun must be repeated, except before the 
last, when it is preceded by the conjunction and : Buffon has 
said, speaking of one of his plans in regard to style, 

This plan is not yet the style, but Ce plan n'est pas encore le style, 
it is its base ; it sustains it, it di- mais il en est la base, il le sou- 
reds it, it regulates its motion tient, le dirige, il r&gle ses mouve- 
and subjects it to its laws. ments, et les soumtt a ses lois. 

The verbs, soutient, dirige, have the same object, which is 
style ; the third has another, and the delicacy of our ears would 
be hurt, if the pronoun was not repeated ; but the last verb 
having the same object as that which precedes it, and the con- 
junction and being placed between the two, the repetition of 
the pronoun is not necessary. 



PRONOUN. 



147 



602. 3d. If the last verb be united to the preceding by a con- 
junction, which is itself followed by a long incidental sentence, 
the pronoun must be repeated before it ; as, 

He rushes upon his enemy, and af- II fond sur son ennemi, et apres 



ter having seized him with a vic- 
torious hand, he throws him down, 
as the severe Aquilon would the 
golden harvest which covers the 
plains. 



Vavoir renverse dune main victo- 
rieuse, il le renverse, comme le 
cruel Aquilon abat les moissons 
dorees qui couvrent la campagne. 



603. 4th. Although the first verbs are used without pro- 
nouns, if the last is separated from them by a long incidental 
sentence, preceded itself by the conjunction and, this last verb 
must take the pronoun. 



Excited by an insatiable avidity, 
blinded by ambition still more 
insatiable, he renounces all feel- 
ings of humanity ; turns his 
strength against himself, and, in 
attempting the destruction of his 
fellow-men, in fact destroys him- 
self ; and after those days of car- 
nage, when the smoke of glory 
has vanished, he sees with an 
eye of sadness, the land devas- 
tated, the arts buried in oblivion, 
the nations scattered, the people 
weakened, his own happiness de- 
stroyed, and his real power an- 
nihilated. (Buffon, speaking of 
man.) 



Excite parl'insatiable avidite, aveu- 
gle par l'ambition, plus insatiable 
encore, il renonce aux sentiments 
d'humanite, tourne ses forces 
contre lui meme, cherche a s'en- 
tre detruire, se detruit en effet, et 
apres les jours de sang et de car- 
nage, lorsque lafumee de la gloire 
s'est dissipee, il voit d'un ceil 
triste sa terre devastee, les arts 
ensevelis, les nations dispersees, 
les peuples affaiblis, son propre 
bonheur ruine, et sa puissance 
reelle aneantie. 



Tn this sentence, the first verbs, tourne, cherche, se detruit, 
have no pronouns, but on account of the long, incidental sen- 
tence which follows et, the ear requires that the pronoun should 
be used before the last verb, il voit. 

604. This rule, as well as the two preceding, are a matter 
of taste, and are not followed absolutely ; some excellent 
writers have disregarded them ; they are given here as a mat- 
ter of general information. 

605. Personal pronouns nominative, of the three persons, 
singular or plural, must always be repeated before the verb, 
where the verbs are united by any conjunction except and and 
nor, et and ni. 



148 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

He lays down excellent principles, 11 donne d'excellents principes par- 

because he knows that upon them cequHl sait que les progres ulte- 

depends all further progress. rieurs en dependent. 

You tell a lie, for you are blushing. Vous dites un mensonge, car vous 

rougissez. 

He is good-natured, but he is weak. 11 est bon, mais il est faible. 

He promises and keeps his word. II promet et tient parole. 

He neither gives nor receives. II ne donne ni ne recoit. 

606. Personal pronouns nominative, of either of the three 
persons, singular or plural, are always repeated before each 
verb, when passing from a negative to an affirmative sentence, 
and vice versa. 

He will, and he will not. 11 veut, et il ne veut pas. 

You say so, and you do not believe Vous dites cela,et vous ne le pen- 
it. sez pas. 

You do not love, and you wish oth- Vous n'aimez pas, et vous voulez 

ers to love you. qu'on vous aime. 

You do not go into the country, and Vous n'allez pas a la campagne, et 

you invite me to go there. vous m'invitez a y aller. 

607. The personal pronouns nominative are not repeated 
before verbs, which, composed of another which precedes them, 
express the repetition of the same action ; as, 

I tell it and tell it again to you. Je vous le dis et le redis. 

He does it, and does it again. 11 lefait et refait, sans cesse. 

But they must be repeated before verbs which, although 
composed of that which precedes them, express a different ac- 
tion ; as, 

I dress and undress myself from Je m'habille etje me deshabille du 
morning to night. matin au soir. 

These two rules do not require any further illustration. 

608. In all possible cases, the personal pronoun nominative 
must be repeated, if the first verb is followed by a regimen, 
although the verbs are in the same tense ; as, 

You shall love the Lord your God, Vous aimerez le Seigneur votre 
and observe his law. Dieu, et vous obeirez a sa loi. 



Of Personal Pronouns employed objectively. 

609. It has been said already, that among the personal pro- 
nouns employed objectively, some were always placed before 
the verb, some always after, and some others were sometimes 
placed before, sometimes after. 



PRONOUN. 149 

610. We have given complete illustrations of the general 
use of these pronouns ; we have now to refer to the rules 
which regulate them in the numerous cases where they may be 
used in the construction of sentences. 

611. Preceded by a preposition, the pronouns, moi, toi, 
soi, nous, vous, lui, eux, tile, dies, are placed after the verb, 
in French, whether they are so in English or not ; as, 

You may depend on me. Vous pouvez compter sur moi. 

This depends on thee. Cela depend de toi. 

We all carry our nature with our- Chacun porte sa nature avec soi. 

selves. 

Why do you not think of us any Pourquoi ne pensez vous plus a 

more. nous. 

You always speak of yourself. Vous parlez toujours de vous. 

You write but to him. Vous n'ecrivez qu'a lui. 

He dreams only of her. II ne reve qu'a elle. 

I have a grudge against them. J'ai une dent eontr'eux. 

We cannot depend upon them. Nous ne pouvons pas compter sur 

elks. 

612. When a verb, in the imperative, governs a personal pro- 
noun, and is followed by another verb in the infinitive, if the 
pronoun is the direct regimen of the verb in the imperative, 
it follows the rule already laid down for the pronouns used 
with a verb in the imperative ; 

Let me do this work. Laissez-moi faire cet ouvrage. 

Get thy portrait taken. Fais toi peindre. 

Hear him speak. Ecoutez le parler. 

Hear her sing. Ecoutez la chanter. 

613. But if the imperative has no direct object, then the 
pronoun which follows it, being the object of the verb in the 
infinitive, follows the rule laid down for the pronouns used as 
direct or indirect object in the affirmative form ; as, 

Come and see me. Venez me voir. 

Go and get thy hair cut. Va te faire couper les cheveux. 

Go and speak to him or to her. Allez lui parler. 

Come and talk to them. Viens leur parler. 

614. When two imperatives are joined together by the con- 
junctions, and, et, or, ow, it is somejimes more elegant to place 
the pronoun governed by the second verb, before it ; as, 

Polish and repolish it continually. Polissez le et le repolissez sans 

cesse. 
Keep them or send them back. Gardez les ou les renvoyez. 

615. But as usage is the best regulator of languages, this 

13* 



150 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



elegant mode of expression must not be employed indiscrimin- 
ately, and in most cases it would be better to place both pro- 
nouns after their respective verbs ; as, 



Love and protect him. 

Invite them and treat them well. 



Aimez le et protegez te. 
Invitez les et traitez les bien. 



616. When two or more pronouns are used objectively 
with the same verb, and the preposition, to, a, or of, de, is gov- 
erned by the verb, or if either of the other pronouns is its 
direct object ; in all the tenses of the verb, whether affirmative, 
interrogative, or negative, except in the imperative, me, te, se, 
nous, vous, are placed first ; le, la, les, before lui, leur ; and 
y before en, which is always the last. 



I said it to him. 

You gave it to me. 

He gave it to thee. 

He has allowed himself to do it. 

You gave it to us. 

I had foretold it to you. 

I promised it to her. 

I have told it to them. 

I have given them (things) to them. 

I will make them pay attention to 

it. 
I will speak to them about it. 
I shall send some of it to them 

there. 



Je le lui ai dit. 

Vous me Z'avez donne. 

II te Z'a donne. 

II se Test permis. 

Vous nous Z'avez donne.. 

Je vous Z'avois pre dit. 

Je la lui ai promise. 

Je le leur ai dit. 

Je les leur ai donnees. 

Je leur y ferai faire attention, 

Je leur en parlerai. 
Je leur y en enverrai. 



617. In imperative sentences, when affirmative, le, la, les y 
are always placed first, and moi and toi are placed after y, but 
nous and vous precede it, and en always comes the last ; as, 

Say it to him. 

Give it to him or her. 

Give them to them (speaking of 

things.) 
Conduct them there. 
Carry me thither. 
Behave thyself well there. 
Give us a call there. 
Behave yourself, (or yourselves,) 

well there. 
Give me some of it. 
Give him some of it. 
Send some of it to them. 
Send some of it to us there. 



Dites le lui. 
Donnez le or la lui. 
Donnez les leur. 

Conduisez les y. 
Conduisez y moi. 
Conduis y toi bien. 
Donnez nous y un bal. 
Conduisez vous y bien. 

Donnez m'en. 
Donnez lui en. 
Envoyez leur en. 
Envoyez nous y en. 



618. Moi and toi are placed after y, because, if placed be- 
fore, the sound of the words, moi-y, toi-y, would be intolerable 
to the ear. 



PRONOUN. 151 

619. It results from the preceding rules, that le, la, les, are 
always direct regimen, and y and en, always indirect, as well 
as leur. 

620. Me, te, se, are sometimes direct, sometimes indirect, 
as well as nous, vous ; direct when me, te, se, stand for moi, 
toi, soi, and nous and vous, when not contracted for a nous, a vous. 

621. When not in the imperative, moi, toi, may be the 

direct objects by apposition only ; as, 

Would you lose me, I, your friend ? Voudriez-vous me perdre, moi, votre 

allie ? 
Would I suspect thee of perfidy, Je te soupconnerais de perfidie, toi ! 
thee! 

622. In any other case, they are only used as indirect ob- 
jects, preceded by a preposition, as has been already said. 
Lux, elle, eux, elles, are almost always used as indirect objects 
with or without prepositions, but they are occasionally em- 
ployed as direct objects by apposition, in distributive sen- 
tences ; as, 

I love them ; him for his frankness, Je les aime ; lui pour sa franchise, 

her for her gentleness. elle pour sa douceur. 

Protect him, him who formerly did Protegez le, lui qui autrefois vous a 

so much for you. fait tant de bien. 

Why don't you speak to him ? I, Pourquoi ne lui parlez vous pas ? 

speak to him, who has so behaved Moi, lui parler, a lui qui m'a fait 

towards me ! tant de mal ! 

Eux, elles, could be used in the same manner. 

623. Soi is most generally preceded by a preposition ; then 
it is an indirect object ; sometimes it follows the verb without 
any preposition, and is the direct object ; however, it is only 
employed in sentences where there is an indefinite pronoun 
expressed or understood, or preceded by an impersonal verb ; 

We ought but seldom to speak of On ne doit parler que rarement de 

ourselves. soi. 

It is necessary to take care of our- II est necessaire de prendre soin de 

selves. soi, or, garde a soi. 

To love one's self and others is the Aimer soi et les autres est le devoir 

duty of an honest man. de l'homme de bien. 

(Aimer, in the infinitive, being indefinite by its nature, takes 

the place of the indefinite pronoun.) 

In attempting to deceive others, we En essayant de tromper les autres, 
often deceive ourselves. c'est souvent soi que Ton trompe ; 

or, on est souvent trompe soi- 
meme. (In this last passive sen- 
tence the pronoun soi becomes 
nominative.) 



152 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

624. With ne que, meaning but, only, or by apposition, soi 
is employed as a direct object ; as, 

To love only or but ourselves, is to iV'aimer que soi, c'est n'etre bon a 

be good for nothing. rien. 

To act in this manner is to lose Agir ainsi, c'est se perdre soi-mime. 

one's self. 

625. Whatever be the construction of the above sentences, 
the indefinite pronoun, when not expressed, is understood, and 
may be supplied by giving the sentence another turn. 

626. When speaking of things, soi, preceded by the prepo- 
sition de or en, is used in a definite sense, then the phrases 
de soi, en soi, mean of its nature, in its nature ; as, 

Vice is odious in itself. Le vice est odieux en soi. 

The loadstone attracts iron (to it- L'aimant attire le fer de soi-meme. 
self). 

627. The pronoun moi, used with the verb donner, to give, 
with or without the preposition to, a, does not convey the 
same idea. 

Donnez-moi signifies only asking for a thing. 

Donnez a moi means, that when the demand is made, the 
person, who is to give, is uncertain to whom he would give, 
and about giving to some one else. 

Of Personal Pronouns objective applied to persons or things. 

628. The pronouns le, la, les, are used indifferently of per- 
sons and things. 

Speaking of a man,) I know him, Je le connais. 

of a book,) I shall sell it, Je le vendrai. 

of a woman,) I shall see her, Je la verrai. 

of a table,) I shall have it mended, Je la ferai raccommoder. 
of persons,) I love them, Je les aime. 

of things,) I shall buy them, Je les acheterai. 

629. Elle, elles, preceded by a preposition, as well as lux, 
leur, meaning to him, to her, to them, a lui, a elle, a eux, a 
elles, have given rise to difficulties among grammarians ; we 
must therefore refer to usage, which should become our ruleo 
Although, speaking of persons, we generally say, 

We approached her. Nous nous approachames tfelle. 

I sat by him. Je m'assis pres de lui. 

And speaking of things ; 



PRONOUN. 153 

I approached it. Je m'm approchai. 

I sat by it. Je m'assis aupres. 

630. Yet, in many cases, with the prepositions, of, de, to, 
a, for, pour, after, apres, in, en, &c., the pronouns, elle, 
elles, lui, eux, leur, may be applied to things, as in the follow- 
ing sentences ; 

This river is so rapid, when it over- Cette riviere est si rapide, quand 

flows, that it carries away every elledeborde, qu'elle entraine avec 

thing- it meets in its course ; it elle tout ce qu'elle rencontre ; elle 

leaves nothing behind, but sand ne laisse apres elle que du sable 

and pebbles. et des cailloux. 

631. We say, speaking of an army, 

We marched up to it. Nous marchames a elle. 

There is no other way to render this idea. 

632. Usage requires us to say ; 

These things are good in them- Ces choses sont bonnes en elles- 

selves. memes. 

I love truth to such a degree that I J'aime tellement la verite que je sa- 

would sacrifice every thing for it. crifierais tout pour elle. 

Those reasons are solid in them- Ces raisons sont solides en elles- 

selves. memes. 

633. With the verb, to be, etre, these pronouns are applied 
only to persons, and likewise when they are followed by the 
relatives who and whom, qui and que ; 

It is to her, it is of them that I C'est a elle, c'est d'elles que je parle. 

speak. 
It is she that I see. C'est elle que je vois. 

634. Some grammarians pretend, that in answer to an in- 
terrogative sentence, the pronouns elle, elles, lux, leur, eux, 
may, with the verb to be, etre, relate to things ; as, 

Is this your snuff-box ? Yes, it is. Est-ce votre tabatiere ? Oui, c'est 

elle. 

635. But if it may be allowed in conversation to use such an 
expression as this, the rules of the language do not permit us 
to use it in writing ; the grammatical answer ought to be, oui, 
ce Vest ; but, however, the other mode of expression, c'est elle, 
is more generally used. 

636. Eux, lui, leur, are also, by the power of usage, em- 
ployed in speaking of beasts, flowers, and even inanimate 
objects ; as, 



154 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

These birds and dogs are my only Ces oiseaux et ces chiens sont mon 

pleasure, I love nothing but them ; seul plaisir, je n'aime qu'ewa?, eux 

they are my only diversion, I seuls m'occupent, je ne reve qu'a 

dream of nothing else. eux. 

Those horses are exhausted ; give Ces chevaux sont rendus ; donnez 

them a little wine. leur un peu de vin. 

These flowers will die, unless they Ces fleurs vont perir, si Ton ne leur 

have some water. donne un peu d'eau. 

These trees have too much fruit, Ces arbres sont trop charges, otez 

they ought to be cleared of some. leur une partie de leur fruit. 

I had my house repaired, and I gave J'ai fait reparer ma maison, et je lux 

it a new appearance. ai donne un air neuf. 

637. We have seen now what is allowed by usage, but here 
is the rule ; The pronouns elle, elks, lui, leur, eux, ought to 
be applied to things, only when custom does not permit us to 
supply them by the pronouns y and en. 

638. But these pronouns are used, very properly, in speak- 
ing of things personified, or of things to which qualities are 
attributed which belong only to persons ; as, 

They had built the labyrinth on the On avait bati le labyrinthe sur les 

banks of lake Maeris, and they bords du lac Maeris, et on lui avait 

had given it a prospect in propor- donne une vue proportionee a sa 

tion to its grandeur. grandeur. 

639. Se, himself, herself, itself, is said of persons and 

things ; 

This flower is fading fast. Cette^ewr se fletrit vlte. 

This woman takes a walk. Cette/emwe se promene. 

640. Soi is said of persons and things, but when used in 
speaking of persons, it refers only to an indefinite subject ; as, 

We all work for ourselves. Chacun travaille pour soi. 

He who speaks only for himself has Quiconque rapporte tout a soi n'a 
but few friends. pas beaucoup d'amis. 

641. And when referring to things, it ought to have a defi- 
nite subject ; as, 

A favor always carries its reward Un bienfait porte toujours sa recom- 

with itself. pense avec soi. 

The remorse which crime always Les remords que le crime traine tou- 

carries with itself. jours apr&s soi. 

642. Fis used most generally of things, and sometimes of 
persons, but only by an ellipsis ; as, 

Avoid lawsuits ; conscience often Evitez les proces ; la conscience s" 1 ?/ 

takes an interest in them, health interesse, la sante s'y perd, et la 

is ruined, and fortune is swal- fortune s'y engloutit. 
lowed by them. 



PRONOUN. 155 

643. But in these sentences, 

Do you think of me ? Yes, I do, Pensez-vous a moi ? Oui, j'y pense, 

y refers to a noun of things which is in the mind ; it is here 
for my interests, my business. It is true, however, that in con- 
versation a few instances may occur in which y is used in re- 
gard to persons, but it is a mere license and by no rule. 

644. En, as we have seen, is employed very properly 
speaking of persons and things. 

645. The pronoun It is invariable when it takes the place 
of any other word but a noun ; thus, when used to represent an 
adjective, or a noun used adjectively, or a member of a phrase, 
it is never changed to la, les, whatever may be the number 
and gender of the adjective, or the sense of the sentence. 

Madam, are you sick? Yes, I am. Madame, etes vous maladet Oui, 

je le suis. 

Gentlemen, are you married ? Yes, Messieurs, etes vous marits ? Oui, 

we are. nous le sommes. 

Are you ministers of the king ? Etes vous ministres du roi ? Oui, 

Yes, we are. nous le sommes. 

Are you a mother ? Yes, I am. Etes vous mere ? Oui, je le suis. 

In the first two examples le takes the place of two adjec- 
tives, one in the singular feminine, the other in the plural 
masculine, and in the last two, that of two nouns used adjec- 
tively ; 

646. 

Are you Madam de Genlis ? No, I Etes vous Madame de Genlis ? Non, 

am not. je ne la suis pas. 

Are you the mother of this child ? Etes vous la mere de cet enfant ? 

Yes, I am. Oui, je la suis. 

Are you the ministers of the king ? Etes vous les ministres du roi ? Oui, 

Yes, we are. nous les sommes. 

Are you the person who is sick? Etes vous la malade? Oui, je la 

Yes, I am. suis. 

Are you those who have just been Etes vous les mariis 1 Oui, nous 

married ? Yes, we are. les sommes. 

647. In the first three sentences the pronoun relates to 
nouns employed as such, and in the last two, to two adjectives 
used as nouns, consequently it ought to agree in number and 
gender with its antecedent. 

648. Therefore, in this sentence, 

Are you a daughter of the Duke ? Etes vous fllle de Monsieur le Due ? 
Yes, I am, Oui, je le suis, 



156 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

the pronoun is masculine, because the word fille is used as an 
adjective ; and in the following, 

Are you the daughter of the Duke? Etes vous la fille de Monsieur le 
Yes, I am, Due ? Oui, je la suis, 

the pronoun is feminine, because the word fille is used as a 
noun. 

649. 

We ought to accommodate ourselves On doit s'accoutumer aux caractere 

to the temper of others as much des autres autant qu'on le peut. 

as we can. 

We must help the poor as much as Nous devons venir au secours des 

we can. pauvres autant que nous le pou- 

vons. 

Here the pronoun takes the place of an idea represented 
by a member of a sentence, and remains always singular 
masculine. 

650. It is to be remarked, that although this pronoun is 
never employed in English in similar phrases, it should always 
be rendered in French. 

The reason of the above rule is easily understood. An 
adjective has in itself no gender or number of its own, it 
takes them only to show its connexion with a noun which it 
qualifies ; so that, when employed by itself, or when a noun 
changes its nature to become qualificative, they cannot com- 
municate what they have not, and the pronoun, which takes 
their place, ought to remain unchanged. As to the last case, 
where the pronoun replaces an idea, it ought still to remain 
invariable, an idea having no number or gender. 

This rule has been neglected by Madame Sevigne among 
others, and being one day remonstrated with for answering je 
la suis, to the question, Etes vous enrhumee 9 she exclaimed, 
u You may think what you please about it, but I believe that 
my chin Would at once be covered with beard if I said, Oin, 
je le suis." In spite of the powerful authority of the witty 
authoress, we insist on the necessity of following the above 
rule. 



PRONOUN. 157 



OF ADJECTIVE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 

651. Grammarians do not agree upon the name to be given 
to these pronouns ; they are called, by some, mere adjectives, 
while others have preserved the old denomination of pro- 
nouns with the qualification of possessive, as they always 
denote possession. Both of these pretensions are sustained 
by arguments of equal force ; but as this discussion has no 
influence upon the rules which relate to the word itself, and it 
being only necessary to know how to use it properly, we shall 
take no part in the matter, and to satisfy both parties will call 
this part of speech, Adjective Possessive Pronoun. 

652. The pronouns of this denomination are divided into 
two classes : 

1st. Those which are always joined to a noun. 
2d. Those which are never joined to a noun. 



Of Adjective Possessive Pronouns always joined to a Noun. 

653. Among this class of pronouns, some refer only to one 
person, and some to several. 

654. Those which refer only to one person, as the posses- 
sor, are : 

For the first person singular : (My) mon 

" second " " (Thy) ton 

" third " " (His her) son 

Mon, ton, and son are masculine singular. 

Ma, ta, and sa are feminine singular. 

Mes, tes, and ses are masculine and feminine plural. 

655. Those which refer to several persons as possessing a 
single object, are : 



ma 


mes 


ta 


tes 


sa 


ses 



For the first person plural ; 


(Our) 


notre 


notre 


" second " " 


(Your) 


votre 


votre 


" third " 


(Their) 


leur 


leur 



Notre^ votre, and leur are masculine and feminine singular. 
656. Those referring to several persons possessing several 
objects, are : 

14 



158 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



First person, 


(Our) 


nos 


Second person, 


(Your) 


vos 


Third person, 


(Their) 


leurs 



Nos, vos, and leurs are masculine and feminine plural. 

657. In English, these pronouns agree in number and gen- 
der with the possessor ; while, in French, they agree with the 
object possessed, and always precede it ; as, 

My horse, Mon cheval. (masculine.) 

Thy horse, Ton cheval. " 

His or her horse, Son cheval. " 

658. The pronoun which precedes horse remains in the mas- 
culine, whatever may be the owner, because cheval is mascu- 
line. 

My cow, Ma vache. (feminine.) 

Thy cow, Ta vache. " 

His or her cow, Sa vache. " 

659. The pronoun which precedes cow remains in the femi- 
nine, whatever may be the owner, because vache is feminine. 

My horses and cows, Mes chevaux et mes vaches. 

Thy horses and cows, Tes chevaux et tes vaches. 

His or her horses and cows, Ses chevaux et ses vaches. 

660. The pronouns which precede horses and cows do not 
vary on account of the gender of these two nouns, as they be- 
long to either. 

Our horse and cow, Notre cheval et notre vache. 

Your horse and cow, Votre cheval et votre vache. 

Their horse and cow, Leur cheval et leur vache. 

661. The pronouns notre, voire, and leur, being masculine 
and feminine, do not vary before cheval and vache ; but it must 
be understood, that, although they represent the third person 
plural, they are used in the singular, because they represent the 
property of one horse or one cow divided among several indi- 
viduals. . 

662. But, if we wish to speak of several horses and several 
cows belonging to several individuals, then we have to employ 
the plural form of these very same pronouns of the third per- 
son plural ; as, 

Our horses and cows, Nos chevaux et nos vaches. 

Your horses and cows, Vos chevaux et vos vaches. 

Their horses and cows, Leurs chevaux et leurs vaches. 



PRONOUN. 159 

663. These pronouns, nos, vos, and leurs, being of either 
gender, do not vary before masculine or feminine nouns. 

664. Although the collective idea of several things or facul- 
ties belonging to several individuals ought to be expressed 
in most cases by the pronouns nos, vos, and leurs, these pro- 
nouns are put in the singular, notre, voire, and leur, when they 
relate to nouns which are never used in the plural, at least in 
their natural signification ; as with humanity, humanite ; hun- 
ger, faim ; thirst, soif ; health, sante, &c. Thus we say, 

Gentlemen, why don't you satisfy Messieurs, pourquoin'appaisez-vous 
your hunger, thirst, &c., pas voire faim, votre soif (and not 

vos /aims, vos soifs), 
We are dissatisfied with our health, Nous sommes mecontents de noire 

sante (and not de nos santes), 
Ladies, stop your impatience, give Mesdames, moderez votre impa- 
way to your humanity, tience, abandonnez-vous a. votre 

humanite (and not d vos impa- 
tiences, a vos humanite" s) , 

with the nouns faim, soif, sante, impatience, and humanite, in the 

singular, although, there being several persons spoken of, an 

idea of plurality seems to be attached to these nouns ; but they 

are never used in the plural in that signification. 

665. We have already seen, that, as a matter of politeness, 
we use, in French, as is done in English, the personal pro- 
noun of the second person plural, instead of that of the second 
person singular, before the verb. In these instances, we must 
employ the corresponding possessive pronoun votre, your, and 
not ton, thy ; thus, speaking to a single person, we say, po- 
litely : 

You apply yourself too much to Vous etes trop applique dans vos 
your studies. etudes (and not tes etudes.) 

666. From the illustrations given above, we may deduce the 
following rules : 

667. Rule I. The adjective possessive pronouns of the first 
class are always joined to a noun, with which they agree in 
number and gender. 

668. Exception. The masculine pronouns mon, ton, and 

son are employed with the feminine before nouns beginning with 

a vowel or an h mute, but only for the sake of euphony ; thus 

we say, 

My soul, Mon ame. (feminine.) 

His humanity, Son humanite. (feminine, h mute ) 



160 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

The feminine pronoun with such nouns would produce a 
sound intolerable to the ear. 

669. Rule II. The adjective possessive pronouns must al- 
ways be repeated before each noun ; as, 

My father, brother, sister, and cous- Mon pere, mon frere, ma sceur, et 
ins are in the country. mes cousins sont a la campagne. 

They thus follow the same rule as the article in this res- 
pect. They also ought to be repeated before adjectives ex- 
pressing different qualities, although this is seldom observed in 
English ; as, 

I have shown him my finest and my Je lui ai montre mes plus beaux et 
ugliest dresses ; mes plus vilains habits ; 

because it is evident that there are different sorts of dresses ; 

the same not being able to be at once fine and ugly. But we 

should say : 

I have shown him my new and pret- Je lui ai montre mes neuves et jolies 
ty dresses, robes, 

because dresses may be at once neio and pretty. 

670. Rule III. When we speak of an object which is suf- 
ficiently designated by the verb, or the sense of the sentence, 
not to leave any ambiguity in the mind in regard to the owner 
of what is spoken of, then, instead of using the adjective pos- 
sessive pronoun, the article is placed before the thing pos- 
sessed ; as, 

My head aches. J'ai mal a la tete (and not, a ma 

tete). 
It will be necessary to cut off his II faudra lui couper la jambe (and 

leg. not, sa jambe). 

He has been shot in the arm. II a regu un coup de feu au bras 

(and not, a son bras). 
These horses have run away. Ces chevaux ont pris le mors aux 

dents (and not, a leurs dents). 
He does not say what he has in his II ne dit pas ce qu'il a dans la pen- 
mind, see (and not, dans sa pensee). 

In the first example, it is clear that the person who is speak- 
ing cannot feel for the head of another. 

In the second, the pronoun lui is there for to him, and then 
shows what leg ought to be cut off. 

In the third, it is clear that a person cannot be shot in the 
arm of somebody else. 

In the fourth, the horses cannot take in their own mouths 
other horses' bits to run away with. 



PRONOUN. 161 

In the last, the owner of the thought is sufficiently designated 
by the meaning of the sentence. 

671. But, if the mind was not satisfied about the owner, if 
any ambiguity could exist by the use of the article, then the 
pronoun must always be employed in its place ; as, 

I see my leg- swelling. Je vois ma jambe qui enfle (and 

not la jambe). 
He gave him his hand to kiss. H lui donna sa main a baiser (and 

not la main). 
She boldly gave her arm to the sur- Elle donna hardiment son bras an 

geon. chirurgien (and not le bras). 

He loses all his blood. II perd tout son sang (and not tout 

le sang). 

In the first example, I may see my neighbour's leg swelling 
as well as mine, therefore the pronoun is necessary to relieve 
the ambiguity. 

In the second, he could give the hand of somebody else 
to kiss. 

In the third, she could take the arm of another and present 
it to the surgeon. 

In the fourth, the meaning would not be complete without 
the pronoun. 

672. But we say, in a familiar manner : 

Give me your arm, Donnez-moi le bras, 

although another arm could be given instead of that asked for, 
because the persons speaking, in such cases, are so situated as 
not to leave any doubt in the mind as to the arm which one 
wishes to have. 

673. When the verb is conjugated with two pronouns of the 
same person, and thus is reflective, there cannot be generally 
any ambiguity ; when I say : 

I have hurt my hand, Je me suis blesse a la main, 

it is clear that I speak of my hand, because the sentence could 
be turned thus : 

I have hurt myself in the hand ; 

and it is evident, that, if I have hurt myself, and if the part of 
my body hurt is the hand, that hand is mine. 

674. But usage, that despot of languages, authorizes us to 
say : 

14* 



162 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

He always finds himself upon his II se trouve toujours sur ses jambes, 

legs, 
I have seen him with my own eyes, Je l'ai vu de mes propres yeux, 
I have heard it with my own ears, Je l'ai entendu de mes propres o- 

reilles ; 

as if a man could be on any other legs but his own, or see with 
other eyes, and hear with other ears, 

675. By another tyrannical power of usage, when we speak 
of a disease which is habitual to us, the pronoun is used, al- 
though no ambiguity would exist without it ; as, 

My headache has tormented me all Ma migraine m'a tourmente toute la 
day, journee ; 

as if a man could be actually tormented by the headache of any 
one else. 

676. We never use the adjective possessive pronoun be- 
fore nouns which ought to be followed by the relative pronouns 
qui and que, as well as by a personal pronoun of the same per- 
son as themselves ; thus, we do not say, 

I have received the letter which you J'ai re§u votre lettre que vous m'avez 
wrote me, ecrite, 

but, 

J'ai rec_u la lettre que vous m'avez ecrite, 

because, if you wrote the letter, it is clear that the letter I have 
thus received, is yours. 

677. The adjective possessive pronouns of the third per- 
son, son, sa, ses, leur, and leurs, relate either to persons, to 
things personified, or to things alone. 

678. When they relate to persons or things personified, they 
are always used to indicate their possession, and cannot be sup- 
plied by any other pronouns ; but, if they refer to things, the 
practice varies, as it does in regard to personal pronouns. 

679. The pronouns son, sa, ses, leur, and leurs, relating to 
things, may be used when the noun expressing the possessor is 
employed in the same sentence as nominative, as in the follow- 
ing : 

The country has its amusements. La campagne a ses agrements. 

These languages have their beau- Ces langues ont leurs beautes. 

ties. 

The church has its privileges. L'eglise a ses privileges. 

Because the nouns campagne, langues, and eglise, which are 



PRONOUN. 163 

the possessors, are here the nominative of the verb to have, 
avoir. 

680. But we could not say : 

Her head is beautiful. Sa tete est belle, (speaking of a 

statue.) 
Its streets are large. Ses rues sont larges. 

Its bed is deep. Son lit est profond. 

Its members are honest and en- Ses membres sont honnetes et 
lightened. eclaires. 

Because the nouns representing the possessor, which are under- 
stood, should not stand in the sentences as nominatives of the 
verb to be. These phrases should to be turned in another way ; 
as, 

The head of her is beautiful. La tete en est belle. 

The streets of it are large. Les rues en sont larges. 

The bed of it is deep. Le lit en est profond. 

The members of it are honest, &c. Les membres en sont honnetes, &c. 

681. The reason of this rule arises from the fact, that the 
pronouns son, sa, ses, leur, leurs, indicate possession ; and that 
the faculty of possessing can only be attributed to living beings. 
We cannot pretend, that flowers and fruits are the property of 
a tree, which is an inanimate being, so that it would be im- 
proper to say : 

There is a beautiful tree, I admire Voila un bel arbre, j'admire ses 
its fruits, its flowers. fruits et ses fleurs. 

It should be, 

I admire the fruits and flowers of it. Ten admire les fruits et les fleurs. 

682. But there are a great many cases in which the sense 
or construction of the sentence does not admit the use of the 
pronoun en, as for instance, those where the noun which pre- 
cedes the pronoun governs the preposition of, as, 

I admire the beauty of its edifices J'admire la beaute de ses edifices, 
and streets. (Speaking of a city.) de ses rues. 

We could not say here, 

J'en admire la beaute de.s edifices ; 
because en means de elle ; the preposition of, de, would be thus 
used twice to govern the same noun, which is against the 
genius of the language. 

683. When any preposition precedes immediately the noun 



164 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

of the thing possessed, the pronouns son, ses, leur, and fours, 
are used to indicate the possession ; as, 

It is by her situation, joined to the C'est par sa situation, jointe a la 

wisdom of her government, that sagesse de son gouvernement, 

she unites within herself such qu'elle reunit dans son sein de 

vast advantages. si grands avantages. 

The pronoun en could not be introduced in this sentence on 
account of its construction ; so that we may lay down this rule : 

684. When speaking of things, the pronoun en ought to be 
used with the article, instead of the possessive adjective pro- 
nouns, son, sa, ses, leur, and leurs, provided the genius of the 
language admits of its being introduced in the sentence ; as, 

In short, every thing conspires to Tout enfin contribue a m'erc faire 

make me love that residence ; I aimer la residence ; j'en admire 

particularly admire the strict- surtout 1'exacte police, en meme 

ness of its police, at the same terns que les lois m'en paraissent 

time its laws appear to me ex- extremement sages, 
tremely wise. 

Of Adjective Possessive Pronouns which are never joined to 

a Noun. 

685. These pronouns may relate to one or several persons. 
Those which relate only to one person, as the possessor, are, 

For the first person singular : 

Mine, le mien, la mienne, les miens, les miennes. 
For the second person singular : 

Thine, le tien, la tienne, les tiens, les tiennes. 

For the third person singular : 

His, her, its, le sien, la sienne, les siens, les siennes. 

Le mien le tien, le sien, are singular masculine. 

La mienne, la tienne, la sienne, " feminine. 

Les miens, les tiens, les siens, are plural masculine. 
Les miennes, les tiennes, les siennes, " feminine. 

686. Those which relate to several persons possessing only 
one object, are, 

First person plural : Ours, le notre, la notre. 

Second " " Yours, le votre, la votre. 

Third " " Theirs. le leur, la leur. 

Le notre, le votre, le leur, are masculine. 

La notre, la votre, la leur, are feminine. 

687. Those, in fine, which relate to several persons pos- 
sessing several objects, are, 



PRONOUN. 165 

First person plural : Ours, les notres. 

Second " " Yours, les votres. 

Third " " Theirs, les leurs, 

Les notres, les votres, and les leurs, are of either gender. 

688. These pronouns are never joined to a noun, but they 
relate to one, and cannot be used unless the noun to which 
they relate has been expressed before ; as, 

I have sold my horse ; have you J'ai vendu mon cheval ; avez vous 

still yours ? encore le voire ? 

You destroy your health ; I keep Vous detruisez votre sante ; je con- 
mine, serve la mienne. 

689. They agree in number and gender with the noun to 
which they relate. 

Merchants, when they correspond with each other, generally 
do not observe this rule ; nothing is more common among them 
than beginning an answer to a letter by this barbarous phrase ; 

I have received yours dated such a J'ai regu la voire datee de tel jour, 
day. &c. 

The word lettre not being already expressed, the pronoun can- 
not be used ; the phrase should be turned thus ; 

J'ai regu votre lettre datee, &c. 

690. The personal pronouns are employed instead of the 
possessive, when nouns of things are used instead of nouns of 
persons ; as, 

There is no better writer than he. II n'y a pas de meilleure plume que 

lui. 
There is not in the world a better II n'y a pas au monde de meilleure 
fencer than you. epie que vous. 

In these two sentences, plume is use for ecrivain (writer) 
and epee for tireur (fencer). 

691. But if those two nouns were taken in their natural 
meaning, the possessive pronouns should be employed ; as, 

There are no better pens than II n'y a pas de meilleures plumes 

yours. que les votres. 

There is no better sword than II n'y a pas de meilleure epee que 

yours. la votre. 

If in the two first sentences the possessive pronoun was used 
instead of the personal, their meaning would be, 



166 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

There is no better pen than your pen, 
There is no better sword than your sword ; 

which is not the idea which the speaker has in mind. 

692. The adjective possessive pronouns are never related 
to a noun taken indefinitely ; as in sentences like the following : 

He is not disposed to give pleasure, II n'est pas d'humeur a faire plaisir, 

and I am disposed to be benevo- et le mien est d'etre bienfaisant. 
lent. 

In the first ages of the world, the Dans les premiers ages du monde, 

father of each family governed chaque pere defamille gouvern- 

it with absolute power. ait la sienne avec un pouvoir ab- 

solu. 

Because a noun employed without an article, or without the 
equivalent of an article, cannot be followed by a pronoun refer- 
ring to that noun. The above sentences should be expressed 
as follows : 

II n'est pas d'humeur a faire plaisir, et moi, je suis d'une humeur bien- 

faisante. 
Dans les premiers ages du monde, chaque pere de famille gouvernait 

ses enfants avec un pouvoir absolu. 

693. But when these pronouns may refer to a noun taken 
definitely, they ought to be employed in preference to the cor- 
responding personal pronouns ; as, 

It is my brother's opinion as well C'est l'opinion de mon frere et la 
as mine. munne. 

it would be wrong to say de moi. 



OF THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 

694. Demonstrative pronouns are words whose functions 
are not to name the object spoken of, and so specify it by its 
qualities, but only to point it out among others. 

Demonstrative pronouns are divided into five classes, entirely 
distinct from each other. 

1st. Those which always precede a noun. 

2d. Those which always precede a preposition or a relative 
pronoun. 

3d. Those which always follow a noun to point it out among 
others of the same kind. 



PRONOUN. 167 

4th. Those which relate to a thing or an idea before ex- 
pressed. 

5th. Those which are never joined to a noun, preposition, 
or relative pronoun. 

Demonstrative Pronouns always placed before a Noun. 

695. The demonstrative pronouns which always precede a 
noun are four in number ; or, to say better, there is but one, 
which is modified according to the number and gender and the 
first letter of the noun following. 

This or that, ce, is used before a noun singular masculine, be- 
ginning with a consonant or h aspirated. 
" " cet, is used before a noun singular masculine be- 
ginning with a vowel or an h mute. 
" " cette, is used before all feminine nouns in the sin- 
gular. 
These and those, ces, is used before all plural nouns ; as, 

This book. Ce Zivre. 

This hamlet. Ce Aameau. 

This work. Cet ouvrage. 

That man. Cet homme. 

That woman. Cette femme. 

These men or women. Ces hommes et ces femmes. 

These pronouns relate equally to persons and things. 



Demonstrative Pronouns always followed by a Preposition 
or a Relative Pronoun. 

696. There is but one pronoun of this class ; but by its 
agreement with the noun to which it relates, it changes in the 
following manner : 

This or that or he, celui, relating to a noun singular masculine. 
This or that or she, ce/Ze, " " " u feminine. 
These, those or they, ceux, " " " plural masculine. 

" " " celles, " « « " feminine. 

Thus, speaking of a book, which is masculine singular, we 
say, 



168 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

That of my brother. Celui de mon frere. 

Speaking of a cow which is feminine, we say, 

That of my brother. Celle de mon frere. 

Speaking of books, we say, 

Those of my brother. Ceux de mon frere. 

Speaking of cows, we say, 

Those of my brother. Celles de mon frere. 

697. This pronoun, followed by a preposition, is said of 
persons and things. 

He, among you, who will distin- Celui de vous qui se distinguera le 

guish himself the most, shall be plus, sera recompense. 

rewarded. 

These are curious faces ; those of Voici de curieuses figures, celles 

Dantan do not look more gro- de Dantan n'ont pas un air plus 

tesque. grotesque. 

In the first of these two examples, celui refers to persons, and 
in the second, celles refers to things. 

698. The pronoun celui ought not to be separated, by too 
many words, from the noun to which it refers ; thus the follow- 
ing sentence, 

Courage, a quality peculiar to the Le courage, cette qualite des ar- 

French armies, always became mees Franchises, devenait tou- 

fruitless, and often fatal, because jours inutile et souvent funeste, 

judgment was not that of our parceque la discretion n'etait 

counsels. pas celle de nos conseils. 

is not correct ; it is not because celle could possibly relate to 
any other noun than qualite, but because the mind is not im- 
pressed at once with the relation existing between these two 
words, and is thus exposed to a trouble which should never 
exist in the construction of sentences : it ought to be as fol- 
lows : 

Parceque la discretion ne dirigeait pas nos conseils. 

Or, repeating the word qualite, 

Parceque la discretion n'etait pas la qualite de nos conseils. 

699. This pronoun celui cannot refer to a noun taken in an 
indefinite meaning ; thus we ought not to say ; 



PRONOUN. 169 

This man is not wanting- in cour- Cet homme ne manque pas de cour- 
age, but that of his brother is far age, mais celui de son frere est 
superior. beaucoup plus remarquable. 

700. The pronoun celui, when followed by a relative pro- 
noun, is said of persons and things ; as, 

He who does not know how to be- Celui qui ne sait pas se conduire, 

have himself, can never com- ne peut commander aux autres. 
mand others. 

I want a light ; bring me that which J'ai besoin d'une lumikre ; apportez- 

is on the table. moi celle qui est sur la table. 

701. Sometimes the pronoun is suppressed before the rela- 
tive pronoun in sentences like the following : 

He, who wishes to be feared, is Qui veut se faire craindre, est rare- 
seldom loved. ment aime. 

702. The pronoun celui can never be modified by an adjec- 
tive or a participle ; as, 

Among the letters we have receiv- Parmi les lettres que nous avons 

ed, give me that arrived from recues, donnez-moi celle arrivie 

England. d'Angleterre. 

Among your pens give me that Parmi les plumes donnez-moi celle 

which is good to write with. bonne pour ecrire. 

These two sentences are wrong ; in both of them the words, 
which is, qui est, ought to follow celle, to establish a connexion 
between the first and the last proposition ; as, 

Donnez-moi celle qui est arrivee d'Angleterre. 
Donnez-moi celle qui est bonne pour ecrire. 



Of Demonstrative Pronouns which always follow a Noun. 

703. These pronouns are two in number, and have no other 
equivalent in English than the words here and there placed after 
a noun by apposition, to point it out among others ; they are 
expressed in French by ci for here, and la for there ; in old 
times, they were used by themselves, and many examples may 
be found in our best writers ; Madame de Sevigne made fre- 
quent use of them. She wrote, in a letter dated on the 16th 
of March, 1672, 

We shall see each other between Nous nous verrons entre ci et 
this day and Easter. Paques. 

704. But in our days this pronoun ci is only used after names 

15 



170 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

of persons and things, la is sometimes employed alone, but it 

is only elliptically, as : 

I dislike this man, and that woman Je n'aime ni cet homme-ci, ni cette 

also. femme-la. 

He is there alone. II est la seul. 

In the first example, ci refers to the nearest object, and Id 
to the farthest. 

In the second, la, standing by itself, means, in that place 
there , dans ce lieu la. 



Of Demonstrative Pronouns standing by themselves, being never 
followed either by a noun, a preposition, or a relative pro- 
noun. 

705. This pronoun is a compound of the two last ; it points 
out a person or thing, and when used with either of the pro- 
nouns, ci or la, designates with the first the nearest, and with 
the last the most distant object. They have the meaning of 
this one, that one. 

This (one), or that (one), masc. sing. celui-ci, celui-la. 

" " fern. " celle-ci, celle-la. 

These (ones), those (ones), masc. plur. ceux-ci, ceux-la. 

" " fem. " celles-ci, celles-la. 

Thus, speaking of two men, we say, 

This is a good one, that one is bad. Celui-ci est bon, celui-la est me- 

chant. 

Speaking of two ladies, 

This one is handsome, and that one Celle-ci est belle et celle-la est 
is ugly. laide. 

Speaking of horses, 

These are gentle, but those are Ceux-ci sont doux, mais ceux-la 
restive. sont retifs. 



Speaking of peaches, 



These are ripe, and those green. Celles-ci sont mures, et celles-la sont 

vertes. 



Of Demonstrative Pronouns referring only to things, taken 
indefinitely or representing an idea already expressed. 

706. This pronoun is a compound of the pronoun ce with 



PRONOUN. 171 

the pronouns ci and la ; it refers only to things taken indefi- 
nitely, or to ideas already expressed ; it has neither feminine 
nor plural. 

This, ceci. That, cela. 

When used together, ceci relates to the nearest, and cela to 
the farthest object. 

This pronoun has no reference to the nature of the object 
to which it relates, it represents it as a substance ; and when 
applied to an idea, it only points it out as having been ex- 
pressed before, and this indefinite character deprives it of 
gender and number ; thus we say, 

This is only laughable, but that is Ceci n'est que risible, mais cela est 
horrible. horrible. 



Of the Pronoun ce joined to the verb to be. 

707. Ce, prefixed to the verb to be, is always masculine 
and singular, unless the verb to be is followed by a pronoun of 
the third person plural, or by a noun plural, acting as nomina- 
tive of the following verb ; as, 

It is I who speak. C'est moi qui parle. 

It is thou who lovest. C'est toi qui aimes. 

It is he or she who shall go. C'est lui ou elle qui ira. 

It it we who will suffer. C'est nous qui souffrirons. 

It is you who lie. C'est vous qui mentez. 

It is these who shall go. Ce sont eux qui iront. 

708. Any noun, plural or singular, could be substituted for 

the pronoun, singular or plural, of the third person ; as, 

It is my brother who shall do my C'est mon frere qui fera mon travail. 

work. 
It is my brothers who, &c. Ce sont mes freres qui, &c. 

709. In interrogative sentences the pronoun ce comes after 

the verb, and before the nominative ; as, 

Is it I who speak ? Est-ce moi qui parle ? 

Is it the English who have done Sont-ce les Anglais qui ont fait 

this ? cela ? 

Is it the English whom you love ? Est-ce les Anglais que vous aimez ? 

In this last example, les Anglais are objective of the 

verb to love, whose nominative is vous ; the verb to be then 

must remain in the singular, according to the rule established 

above. 



172 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

710. Ce, joined to the verb to be, forms a number of Galli- 
cisms, which are elegantly used in the language ; as, 

The way to encourage merit is to C'est encourager le merite que de 

reward it. le recompenser. 

To despise the true spirit of science C'est ne pas connaitre l'esprit de la 

is not to know it. science que de la mepriser. 

Hatred is a dreadful passion. C'est une terrible passion que la 

haine. 

These sentences, consecrated by usage, are not grammatical, 
and are used for these ; 

Recompenser le merite, c'est Fencourager, 
Mepriser la science, c'est ne pas la connaitre, 
La haine est une passion horrible ; 

which are correct, but are flat in comparison with the pre- 
ceding. 

711. The pronoun ce, placed at the beginning of a sentence, 
ought to be repeated in the second member of that sentence, 
when the last begins with the verb to be. 

What I wish the most is, to go and Ce que je desire le plus, c'est d'aller 
see you. vous voir. 

712. But if the verb to be is followed by a singular noun, 
the repetition is not indispensable ; so we may say ; 

What deserves our admiration the Ce qui merite le plus notre admira- 
most is virtue. tion est (or c'est) la vertu. 

713. And when the verb to be is followed by an adjective, 
then the pronoun ce must not be expressed ; as, 

What you have just told me is hor- Ce que vous venez de me dire est 
rible. horrible. 

714. Although the pronoun ce should not be placed at the 
beginning of the sentence, it is used before the verb to be, if 
what precedes the verb as an attribute is of a certain extent ; 
as, 

A sign of corruption in the manners Le signe de la corruption des mozurs 
of a country is the multiplicity of dans un Mat, c'est la multiplicite 
its laws. des lois. 

But we would say, 

True nobility is virtue, La vraie noblesse est la vertu ? 

because the attribute true nobility is of small extent* 



PRONOUN. 173 

715. Foreigners have great difficulty in understanding when 
the English phrases, it is, he is, ought to be expressed by 
il est or by c'est. The following rules will leave no doubt in 
their minds. 

When it is, or he is, are followed by an adjective, an ad- 
verb, or a noun taken adjectively, they are always rendered by 
il est ; as, 

It is worthy of a great nation to II est digne d'une grande nation de 

build hospitals for their wounded construire des hopitaux, pour ses 

warriors. guerriers invalides. 

Do not depend upon him, he is not Ne comptez pas sur lui, il n'est pas 

a man of his word. homme de parole. 

It is well to be generous, provided it II est bien d'etre genereux pour- 
is not with other people's money. vu que cene soit pas avec l'argent 

des autres. 

716. But c'est is used instead of il est before an adjective 
when answering to a question, or deducing a consequence, 

Is it necessary for us to go to Est-il necessaire que nous allions en 
Europe ? Yes, it is. Europe ? Oui, c'est necessaire. 

Yes, you are right, we must go to Oui, vous avez raison, nous devons 
war with England, it is indispens- faire la guerre a PAngleterre, 
able. c'est indispensable. 

717. When, on the other hand, it is, or he is, are followed 
by a noun, a pronoun, or an adjective used as a noun, or even 
by a verb, then these phrases are expressed by c'est ; as, 

You may trust him, he is the man Vous pouvez vous fier a lui, c'est 

I esteem the most. Vhornme du monde que j'estime le 

plus. 

You may trust Mr. * * * *, he is a Vous pouvez vous fier a M. * * * *, 

man of his word. c'est un homme de parole. 

I ought to believe that story, be- J'ai du croire cette histoire, car c'est 

cause it is you who told it to me. vous qui me l'avez dite. 

What a man must care for is the Ce que l'homme doit preferer c'est 

useful, and not the agreeable. V utile et non Vagrtahle. 

By treating me as you do, you show Me traiter comme vous le faites, 

that you do not respect my char- c'est dire que vous n'estimez pas 

acter. mon caractere. 

718. From the above illustrations, it results, that whenever 
it is, and he is, are translated by il est, the word which follows 
is never preceded by an article ; when, on the contrary, they 
are expressed by c'est before a noun, or an adjective taken as a 
noun, the article is always placed before both. 

719. When it is is followed by a preposition, sometimes 
this phrase is expressed by il est, sometimes by c'est. 

15* 



174 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

With the preposition of, il est is used in sentences like this ; 

It is my duty to tell you the truth. 11 est de mon devoir de vous dire la 

verite. 

720. With any other preposition the phrase c'est is always 
used ; as, 

It is by gambling that one loses his C'est d, jouer que l'homme perd 

honor. l'honneur. 

It is by your fault that you have Cest par votre faute que vous vous 

ruined yourself. etes ruine. 

It is with sorrow that I see your Oest avec chagrin que je vois votre 

health declining. sante decliner. 

721. Cest is also used very properly with a great number 
of adverbs, as well as in many Gallicisms consecrated by time 
and usage ; as, 

I bitterly repent the loss of your Oest amerement que je regrette la 

father. perte de votre pere. 

I admire this, it is perfectly done. J'admire ceci, c' 'est parfaitement fait. 

You are, indeed, welcome to re- Oest Men a vous a me reprocher 

proach me with this fault. cette faute. 



Of the Pronoun ce joined to a relative pronoun. 

722. Ce, followed by a relative pronoun, relates only to 

things ; it is always masculine, and governs the verb which 

follows in the singular, because its meaning is vague, and not 

sufficiently specified to ascertain its gender and number ; as, 

What pleases is more dangerous Ce qui plait est plus dangereux 
than that which offends. que ce qui offense. 

723. The relative pronouns to which ce may be prefixed, 
are qui, que, dont, and quoi. 

724. With qui, que, dont, no preposition is ever used after 
ce, but always with quoi. 

725. When joined to qui, ce qui is always employed as 
nominative of the verb following. 

726. When joined to que, dont, quoi, the compound rela- 
tive pronouns ce que, ce dont, ce a quoi, are always the object 
of the verb following ; as, 

What makes me happy, makes you Ce qui me rend heureux, vous rend 

miserable. miserable. 

What I love you dislike. Ce que j'aime, vous ne l'aimez pas. 

That of which you speak is known Ce dont vous parlez est connu de 

by everybody. tout le monde. 

That in which you fail is the want Ce par quoi vous pechez, c'est le 

of mind. manque dejugement. 



PRONOUN. 175 

In the first example, ce qui is nominative of the verb rend ; 
in the last three, ce qui, ce dont, ce par quoi, are objectives of 
the verbs j'aime, vous parlez, and vous pechez. 

727. We have already stated, that when ce, followed by 
qui, que, dont, and quoi, begins a sentence, and is the nomina- 
tive of the verb to be, coming after the incidental proposition, 
complement of ce, this pronoun was sometimes repeated and 
sometimes omitted before the verb to be ; but when this verb is 
followed by a plural noun, or by a personal pronoun, then the 
repetition is indispensable ; as, 

What makes me feel indignant, is, Ce qui m'indigne, ce sont les actes 

the unjust acts which are daily d'injustice qui se commettent 

committed. touts les jours. 

What has saved me from my pain- Ce qui m'a sauve de mes reves peni- 

ful dreams is you. bles, c'est vous. 



OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

728. We have seen already that the use of the personal pro- 
nouns is to designate persons and things ; that of relative pro- 
nouns is to recall the mind to them, and to explain or restrict 
their meaning. 

729. Therefore, relative pronouns relate necessarily to ob- 
jects which have been spoken of before, and have been desig- 
nated by a noun or pronoun. 

730. This noun or pronoun is called antecedent. This an- 
tecedent is not always expressed ; in many sentences it is un- 
derstood, but the mind supplies it with facility and places it 
immediately before the relative pronoun which belongs to it. 

731. Relative pronouns also operate as conjunctions in con- 
necting two phrases together, when we say : 

The society in which we live is La societe que nous frequentons est 
pleasant. agreable. 

The relative que unites and makes only one sentence of these 
two : 

La societe est agreable, nous frequentons cette societe, 

732. This pronoun affords also the advantage of determining, 



176 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

with the period which follows it, the extent of the signification 
which we intend to give to the first ; thus, in this instance, we 
do not pretend to say that society in general is pleasant, but 
only the particular society in which we live. And this idea is 
expressed by the insertion of que before this restrictive pe- 
riod. 

733. The relative pronouns are six in number : 



Who, 


qui. 


Whom, 


que. 


Who, that, or whom, 


le quel. 


Whose, 


dont. 


What, 


quoi. 


Where, 


Oil. 



Ou, by a practice perhaps too much abused, is here used for 
au quel, to which. 



Of the Relative Pronoun Qui, who. 

734. Qui, of either number and gender, is said of persons 
and things when used as a nominative, as in the following sen- 
tences : 

The man who gambles loses his IShomme qui joue, perd 1'honneur. 

honor. 

The book which pleases the most is Le livre qui plait le plus n'est pas 

not always the most useful. toujours le plus utile. 

735. But when qui is objective, and then it is always pre- 
ceded by a preposition, it is only said of persons, or things 
personified ; as, 

The man to whom this beautiful Uhomme h quice beaujardin appar- 

garden belongs is very rich. tient est tres riche. 

Heaven, to which we are indebted Le del, & qui nous devons notre bon- 

for our happiness, will not cease heur, ne cessera pas de nous pro- 

to protect us. teger. 

736. Sometimes by contraction, as a pure Gallicism, we 
use qui objectively for celui que, and la personne que ; in 
which case it follows the preceding rule ; as, 

I will, respecting these, believe Pen croixai, qui (celui que) vousvou- 

whom you please. drez. 

We ought not to become attached to On ne doit pas s'attacher sans savoir 

any one before we know whom we qui (celui que) l'on aime. 

love. 



PRONOUN. 177 

737. When the pronoun qui is governed by the preposition 
of, de, and followed by a personal pronoun, we must employ 
the contracted relative pronoun dont in preference to de qui ; as, 

The lady of whom you speak is La femme dont vous parlez est ties 
much known. connue. 

De qui, instead of dont, would now be a fault against usage. 

738. But, if the relative pronoun preceded by of were used 
instead of a personal pronoun followed by a noun, then de 
qui would be as well as dont ; as, 

The lady of whom your father spoke La femme de qui votre pere m'a par- 
to me is well known. le est tres connue. 

739. The relative qui always agrees in number, gender, and 
person, with its antecedent ; that is to say, it governs the verb 
and adjectives which follow it in the same number, gender, and 
person as its antecedent ; but, for itself, it remains unchanged ; 

as, 

Before God had created living be- Avant que Dieu eut donne 1'etre, 

ings, nothing had life but himself; rien ne l'avait que lui seul ; il est 

it is he who has made all, and who celui qui a fait tout, et qui a fait 

has done all by his word alone. tout par sa parole. 

I, who have insulted you, why don't Moi qui vous ai insulte, pourquoi ne 

you kill me ? me tuez-vous pas ? 

You, who pretend to love me, why Vous qui pretendez m'aimer, pour- 

don't you revenge me ? quoi ne me vengez-vous pas ? 

In the first example, qui is singular, masculine, and of the third 
person, because God, Dieu, its antecedent, is singular, mascu- 
line, and of the third person. 

In the second, qui is singular, masculine, and of the first 
person, because moi, its antecedent, is singular, masculine, and 
of the first person. 

In the third, qui is of the second person, plural, and mascu- 
line, because vous, its antecedent, is of the second person, plu- 
ral, and masculine. 

740. Qui ought not to be separated from its antecedent 
when this antecedent is a noun ; as, 

A young man who is obedient to the Un jeune homme qui est docile aux 

counsels which are given to him, conseils qui lui sont donnes, doit 

must certainly succeed in the infailJiblement reussir dans le 

world. monde. 

741. However, there are phrases in which qui may be sep- 



178 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

arated from its antecedent, by a certain number of words, but 

it is only when the sense compels the pronoun to relate to it ; 

as, 

It has been necessary, above all, to II a fallu, avant toutes choses, vous 

make you read, in the Holy Scrip- faire lire, dans l'Ecriture Sainte, 

tares, the history of the people of Vhistoire du peuple de Dieu, qui 

God, which is the foundation of fait le fondement de la religion, 
religion. 

In this sentence, qui is separated from its antecedent by the 
words, du peuple de Dieu, but the sense compels the pronoun 
to relate to the word histoire ; because the words du peuple 
qualify history, and the words de Dieu qualify peuple ; there- 
fore the mind is obliged to go back as far as history, histoire, 
to find the antecedent of qui ; thus no ambiguity arises from 
the construction, and it may be used without fault. 

742. But the following phrase is incorrect ; as, 

I write to him letters which I think Je lui ecris des lettres que je crois 
are admirable. qui sont admirables. 

Because the antecedent, lettres, being already followed by a rel- 
ative pronoun in the objective, que, cannot, in expressing the 
same idea, be the antecedent of another relative pronoun in the 
nominative ; for, if we change the pronouns que and qui for 
lesquelles, as they relate to letters, we shall have the following 
barbarous sentence : 

Je lui ecris des lettres lesquelles je crois lesquelles sont admirables. 
The sentence ought to be : 

Je lui ecris des lettres que je crois admirables, or, 
Je lui ecris des lettres qui me semblent admirables. 

743. The pronoun qui may be separated from its antecedent 
when the antecedent is a personal pronoun used as a direct ob- 
ject ; as, 

He found her weeping scalding H la trouva qui pleurait a chaudes 

tears. larmes. 

I see him amusing himself. Je le vois qui s' amuse. 

because' the pronouns la and le, being employed for elle and lui, 
cannot possibly, on account of the rules of the language, be 
placed after the verb ; it is here a necessity which cannot be 
helped, and as, besides, no ambiguity arises from it, there 
cannot be any objection to complying with it. 



PRONOUN. 179 

744. \V e have, also, Gallicisms of this kind authorized by 

usage ; as, 

Those are not the most unfortunate Ceux-la ne sont pas les plus mal- 
who complain the most. heureux, qui se plaignent le plus. 

745. We ought to mention that the rule which requires the 
pronoun qui to follow immediately its antecedent, refers only 
to that pronoun used as nominative ; otherwise, the preposition 
always separates it from the noun to which it relates ; as, 

The persons in whom 1 feel inter- La personne pour qui je m'interesse. 
ested. 

746. Sentences where qui is repeated, always relating to the 

same antecedent, are perfectly correct ; as, 

An author who is reasonable, who Un auteur qui est sense, qui connait 
knows his language, who medi- sa langue, qui medite sur son su- 
tates upon his subject, who takes jet, qui etudie a, loisir, qui con- 
proper time to study, and who con- suite ses amis, est presque sur de 
suits his friends, is almost sure of reussir. 
succeeding. 

The relative pronoun qui, thus repeated, relates immediately 

to its antecedent, un auteur, and thus is in conformity with the 

rule given above. 

747. Although the pronoun qui, as a subject, ought not to 
be separated from its antecedent, it still retains all the privi- 
leges of a nominative towards the verb which it governs ; that 
is to say, it may be separated from it by appositions and inci- 
dental phrases ; as, 

Are you then the man who, when Etes vous done l'homme qui, lorsque 
I met him ten years ago, was beg- je le rencontrai, il y a dix ans, 
ging for his bread, and now pos- mendiait son pain, et qui mainte- 
sesses so great riches ? nant possede de si grandes ri- 

chesses ? 

In this sentence, the relative pronoun qui is separated from 
the verb which it governs, by the incidental phrases, lorsque je 
le rencontrai, il y a dix ans, but the sense is clear, and conse- 
quently regular. 

748. But we could not place, between the antecedent and 
its relative pronoun, a preposition with its regimen ; as, 

The goddess, on entering, sees the table dressed, 

Admires such a line arrangement, and recognises the hand of the church. 

La diesse, en entrant, qui voit la nappe mise, 

Admire un si bel ordre, et reconnait l'eglise. 

Hearing this, with an arm that D'un bras, a ces mots, qui peut tout 

knows no resistance he destroyed renverser, il detruit tout ce qui 

all around him. l'entoure. 



180 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

749. The relative qui ought not to be employed with an an- 
tecedent which is followed by a phrase which it governs ; as. 

Do not take my brother's horse, Ne prenez pas le cheval demon frlre 

which is lame. qui est boiteux. 

Let us go and see the sister of my Allons voir la sozur de mon ami qui 

friend, who is always sick. est toujours malade. 

Those sentences are incorrect, because they are not clear, 
and create ambiguity. 

In the first we cannot see clearly whether it is the horse 
or my brother who is lame. 

In the second we cannot see whether it is the sister or the 
friend who is sick. 

They ought to be constructed as follows ; 

Ne prenez pas le cheval boiteux de mon frere. 
Allons voir la sceur malade de mon ami. 

750. We have said above, that the antecedent of relative 
pronouns was understood in many cases ; but it is generally 
when that antecedent is a pronoun. 

The pronouns which are understood are, in general, ce, 
ceZiti, ceZ/e, ceux, celles ; as, 

He who stands as surety ought to (Celui) qui repond, paye. 

pay. 
He who could work did so. Travaillait, (celui) qui pouvait. 

Let us play the game where the Jouons a (celui) qui perd gagne. 

loser is the winner. 

The first sentence ought to be, 

Celui qui repond, paye, 
The second, 

Celui qui le pouvoit, travaillait. 
The third, 

Jouons au jeu ou celui qui perd, gagne. 

All these sentences, and others like them, are idiomatical ; 
great attention is required to use the same privilege right, and 
one must be very well acquainted with the language before he 
omits a pronoun as the antecedent of qui ; Corneille himself 
has committed a great fault in this verse ; 

Et qui seroit heureux, qui pourrait aujourd'hui. 



PRONOUN. 181 

Celui is understood before qui, but que seroit heureux qui is 
not French. 

The following is a pretty verse ; 

Que sont heureux, ceux qui peuvent aimer ! 
How happy are those who may love ! 

But take away ceux, and you have, 

Que sont heureux qui peuvent aimer, 
which is a fault against the language. 

It may be seen how far a word expressed, or omitted, may 
spoil the noblest ideas, and the best expressions. 

751. A great number of phrases may be rendered obscure 
in their meaning by an improper use of the relative pronoun 
qui ; in order to be always clear a particular attention ought to 
be paid, so as to ascertain if the relative pronoun qui is the 
subject of a proposition determinative, or merely explicative. 

752. The proposition is explicative, when it leaves to its 
nominative the whole extent of its signification, without any 
restriction, and serves only to point out a propriety, a quality 
of the subject ; as, 

Man, who is a reasonable being, Uhomme,qui est un itreraisonnable, 
ought never to forget the dignity ne devrait jamais oublier la dignite 
of his nature. de sa nature. 

Qui, here, is an equivalent for parceque, because ; this 
proposition explains the nature of man, but does not restrict 
it ; it is then explicative. 

753. A proposition is determinative, when it limits the 
noun to which it relates ; as, 

The man who respects the laws of Z/homme qui respecte les his de son 
his country is a good citizen. pays est un bon citoyen. 

Without the determinative proposition, qui respecte les lois de 
son pays, we should speak of man in general, or of mankind. 
This proposition, then, restrains, diminishes the extent of the 
signification of the noun, man ; it is, then, determinative. 

754. By a proper application of this distinction in the 
nature of a proposition, we may render the following sentence 
either clear or obscure ; we mean to express that a person 
gave a reward to those of his servants who had been faithful to 
him ; but if we say, making the proposition explicative, 

16 



182 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

II recompensa ses serviteurs qui ne l'avaient point abandonne dans le 
malheur, 

the phrase is obscure, and seems to imply that all his servants 
had followed him, and that he rewarded them all, which is not 
the case. 

Whereas, if we make the proposition determinative, by ad- 
mitting this form, 

II recompensa ceux de ses serviteurs qui ne l'avaient point abandonne dans 
son malheur, 

the ambiguity disappears, and what the mind wishes to express 
is fairly understood ; thus too much care cannot be used in the 
use of the pronoun qui, if we wish to express exactly what the 
mind has in view. 

755. The pronoun qui, when its antecedent is a noun, ought 
always to relate to a noun taken in a definite sense ; thus the 
following sentences are wrong, 

He received me with a politeness II m'a recu avec politesse qui m'a 

which charmed me, charme, 

Man is a reasonable animal, who, L'homme est animal raisonnable, 

&c, qui, &c, 

because, as we have already stated, qui can only relate to a 
definite noun or to an adjective taken as a noun ; then in these 
two sentences, the words, animal raisonnable, and avec politesse, 
are mere qualificatives, expressing a situation, a mode of being ; 
therefore qui cannot relate to them ; but if we make animal 
and politesse definite, or if at least we give them a determinate 
meaning by the addition of the prepositive an, un, une, then 
the nature of these words is so modified as to enable them to 
be the antecedent of qui ; thus the above sentences, so modi- 
fied, are correct, 

II m'a regu avec une politesse qui m'a charme. 
L'homme est un animal raisonnable qui, &c. 

756. Some sentences, where nouns are used without the 
article, seem at first of an indefinite character, and consequently 
not adapted to the use of qui ; but with a little attention, it is 
easily perceived that the signs of that definite nature are under- 
stood, and the mind supplies them without trouble ; as, 

He has not a book, which is not his II n'a pas de livre, qui ne soit de son 
own choice. choix. 



PRONOUN. 183 

He behaves himself as a man who II se conduit en homme qui connait 

knows the world. le monde. 

He is overwhelmed with misfor- II est accable de maux qui ne lui 

tunes which do not give him a laissent pas un moment de repos. 

moment of peace. 

This is a sort of fruit that does not C'est une sorte de fruit qui ne murit 

ripen in Europe. pas en Europe. 

All these sentences are elliptical, and if we supply the 
words which the ellipsis obliges us to omit, we shall see that 
the vague meaning of the nouns, livre, homme, maux, and 
fruits, would change, and become determined ; as, 

H n'a pas un livre, &c. 
II se conduit comme un homme, &c. 
II est accable de plusieurs maux, &c. 
Ce fruit est d'une sorte qui, &c. 



Of the Relative Pronoun, Que. 

757. The relative pronoun que relates to persons and things ; 
it is of either gender and number ; and is never used as a 
nominative or an indirect object. 

Its only function is that of a direct object, and consequently 
it cannot exist in a sentence without an antecedent, which, 
generally, it immediately follows. 

758. We say, generally ; because it may be separated from 
its antecedent by a certain number of words, when the mind 
may, without trouble or ambiguity, recur to that antecedent, of 
which those words are but the complement ; as in this sen- 
tence : 

What is an army ? It is a body Qu'est ce qu'une armee ? C'est 
acted upon by an infinity of differ- un corps anime oVune infinite de 
ent passions, which a skilful man passions diffe' rentes, ^u'un homme 
incites to the defence of the habile fait mouvoir pour la de- 
country, fense de la patrie. 

It is impossible to mistake the antecedent of the pronoun 
que, although it is immediately preceded by passions differentes, 
because these words, d\me infinite de passions differentes, re- 
strain the extent of the signification of the adjective anime, so 
that the mind recurs without difficulty to the antecedent, corps. 

All sentences of like construction, in which such an opera- 
tion of the mind could not be performed without ambiguity, 
are defective, and ought to be avoided. 



184 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

759. Foreigners are, sometimes, much embarrassed in dis- 
tinguishing que, relative, from que, exclamative, or conjunc- 
tive. 

Que is always exclamative when placed at the beginning of 
a sentence ; 

Always conjunctive when it has no antecedent clearly ex- 
pressed ; 

Always relative pronoun when it has an antecedent from 
which it is not separated by a preposition expressed or under- 
stood. 

In the following sentence these three different qualifications 
of the word que are easily discovered ; 

How man is to be pitied, when he Que Phomme est a plaindre, quand 
forgets that it is his reason which il oublie que c'est la raison que son 
his heart must consult ! cceur doit consulter ! 

The first que is merely exclamative ; the second is a con- 
junction, because it has no antecedent to be traced, and the 
third is a relative pronoun, because it is immediately preceded 
by its antecedent, raison. 

But this sentence is defective, because it contains the word 
que three times, which is a great fault of style. 

760. Que, exclamative, is easily known by its being placed 
at the beginning of sentences ; 

Que, pronoun, is ascertained to be such when it may be 
replaced by lequel with the noun to which it is supposed to 
relate ; in this phrase, 

The man whom I associate with is L'homme que je frequente est un 
learned. savant. 

Que is relative, because it is there for Vhomme lequel homme 
je frequente, &c. 

In any other cases que is but a conjunction, and its function 
is simply to connect propositions together, in order to form 
sentences. 

761. There are a great number of cases in which que seems 
to be used as an indirect object, being a contraction of a prep- 
osition and the relative ; but, as no advantage could be derived 
from such a qualification, and as, in many instances, it would 



PRONOUN. 185 

become extremely difficult to establish the distinction, it is pref- 
erable to class those cases in the list of conjunctions entirely ;- 
thus in the following phrases : 

A fountain cannot throw out soft Une fontaine ne peut jeter de 1'eau 

water by the same pipe that it douce par le meme tuyau qu'elle 

throws out salt water. jette de l'eau salee. 

I have received your letter with as J'ai recu votre lettre avec toute la 

much satisfaction, as one ought satisfaction que Ton doit recevoir 

to receive such a favor. d'une telle faveur. 

In the first example que seems to be there for by (the) which, 
par lequel, and in the second for avec laquelle, with which, 
and thus seems to stand as an indirect object ; but in the fol- 
lowing : 

Considering the manner I have De la fac,on que j'ai parle, on doit 

spoken, the}? ought to have un- m'avoir compris. 
derstood me. 

It is to you that I want to speak. C'est a, vous que je veux parler. 

It is in God that we ought to place C'est en Dieu que nous devons pla- 

our confidence. cer notre confiance. 

762. Que is called a mere conjunction by the grammarians 
who call it a pronoun in others ; why this difference ? Is not 
que, in the first sentence, apparently for de laquelle, in the 
second, for auquel, and in the third for dans lequel. 

Such discrepancy cannot then produce any other result than 
confusion ; and to avoid it we shall place que, in cases like those, 
among the conjunctions, and call it such. 



Of the Relative Pronoun, Lequel. 

763. The relative pronoun lequel is used for persons and 
things. 

It takes either number and gender ; as, 

Lequel, singular masculine. Lesquels, plural masculine. 

Laquelle, singular feminine. Lesquelles, plural feminine. 

764. The pronoun lequel should be used either as a nom- 
inative or as a regimen, only to avoid an ambiguity, as in the 
following sentence : 

16 * 



186 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

As soon as I had done the business Aussitot que je fus debarrasse des 

of the court, T went to see the affaires de la cour, je fus voir 

man who had spoken to me about Vhomme qui m'avait parle du 

the marriage of Madame de Mi- mariage de Madame de Mira- 

ramion, who appeared to have mion, lequel me parut dans les 

kept the same opinion. memes sentiments. 

Lequel here is indispensable for the sake of clearness, for 
if, instead of it, qui had been used, then an ambiguity would 
have arisen as to whether Vhomme or Madame Miramion was 
the antecedent of qui. 

765. Now we avoid as much as possible all occasions where 
lequel would be necessary, either as a subject or a regimen. 
Our ear dislikes the use of that word, and phrases ought to be 
arranged so as to spare the necessity of using it at all. 

766. Formerly lequel was often used to avoid the repetition 
of the pronoun qui ; as, 

The priests were of the Aaron fam- Les pretres etaient de la famille 
ily, and only those who were of d'Aaron, et il n'y avait que ceux 
that family could perform sacri- qui etaient de celle famille, les- 
fices. quels pussent exercer la sacrifi- 

cature. 

This phrase, written by Racine himself, would now be 
shocking to our ears, and should be turned differently ; as, 

Les pretres etaient, de la famille d'Aaron, les seuls qui pussent exercer 
la sacrificature. 

767. Lequel, laquelle, lesquels, lesquelles, with the prepo- 
sition of, de, are either preceded or followed by a noun which 
is thus united to the principal sentence, and by which it is gov- 
erned. 

768. When followed by the noun, it is better not to use it, 
and employ dont as a contraction of duquel, de laquelle, &c. 

The Thames, whose bed is deep La Tamise dont le lit est profond 

and rapid, &c. et rapide, &c. 

The prince, whose reputation is Le prince dont la reputation est 

compromised, &c. compromise, &c. 

De laquelle, duquel, here would be wrong. 

769. But if lequel, laquelle, lesquels, lesquelles, with the 
preposition of, are preceded by the noun, then duquel, de la- 
quelle, &c. can only be used ; as, 



PRONOUN. 187 

The Thames, in the bed of which La Tamise dans le lit de laquelle 

so much riches are buried. tant de richesses sont enfoncees. 

The prince, whose reputation is so Le prince a la reputation duquel 

much thought of. on attache tant d'importance. 

770. With the preposition to, a, when speaking of persons, 
qui ought to be preferred to lequel, laquelle, &c. ; as, 

The kings whom we must obey are Les rois, d, qui il faut obeir, ne sont 
not always the tyrants of the pas toujours les tyrans du peu- 
people. pie. 

Auxquels would be against usage. 

The same rule should be observed with any other prepo- 
sition. 

771. But when speaking of things, auquel, auxquels, a la- 
quelles, auxquelles, ought to be chosen ; as, 

The dignities to which he aspires. Les places awzquelles il aspire. 



Of the Relative Pronouns, Dont, De qui, Duquel, De la- 
quelle, Desquels, Desquelles, and Quoi. 

772. The relative pronoun dont relates to persons and 
things ; it is either plural or singular, masculine or feminine, 
and is employed for duquel, de laquelle, &c. and de qui, de 
quoi. We have already stated, when it ought to be used in pre- 
ference to duquel, &c. and wtten not ; but we must add here, 
that it ought always to be replaced by duquel, de laquelle, &c. 
when an ambiguity would arise from its use, or else the phrase 
must be altered in its construction ; as, 

The goodness of the Lord, of La bonte de Dieu, de laquelle (and 
which we feel the effects every not dont) nous ressentons tous 
day of our lives, ought to induce les jours les effets, devrait bien 
us to practise his commands. nous engager a suivre ses com- 

mandements. 

De laquelle is used here to show, that the antecedent is 
bonte, which is singular feminine, and with which it agrees ; by 
using dont, the relative pronoun could as well have Dieu as 
bonte for its antecedent, and the sentence would be ambiguous, 
which must always be avoided. 

773. We shall repeat here, that, speaking of persons, de qui 



188 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

is better than dont, provided the antecedent be a noun ; but if 
a pronoun, dont ought to be preferred ; as, 

The lady we speak of is good. La dame de qui nous parlons est 

bonne. 
It is you of whom we spoke. C'est vous dont nous parlions. 

However, the first sentence with dont would not be a fault, ex- 
cept against taste, whereas the second, de qui, instead of dont, 
would be an offence against grammar. 

774. Foreigners, when using the pronoun dont or de qui, 
ought to bear in mind, that they should be followed by the 
nominative of the next verb, always preceded by the article, 
when this nominative is not a pronoun ; as, 

The French people ought never to Les Francais ne doivent jamais 

forget the memory of Napoleon, oublier la memoire de Napoleon, 

whose great deeds have covered dont les hautsfaits ont couvert le 

the country with glory. pays de gloire. 

775. Of all the relative pronouns quel is the only one which 
takes the article, and this article is so intimately joined to it 
that the pronoun is never used without it, and makes with it a 
single word, when contracted or not. 

776. When the relative pronoun quoi is used, it is always 
employed instead of lequel, preceded by a preposition. 

It is only employed in relation to things, and relates to either 
number or gender. 

777. It follows, but preceded by a preposition, the noun or 
pronoun to which it relates, and precedes the nominative of the 
verb following ; as, 

These are things to which you pay Ce sont des choses a quoi vous ne 

no attention. faites aucune attention. 

These are conditions without which Ce sont des conditions sans quoi 

the affair would not have been V affaire n'aurait pas ete conclue. 

agreed upon. 

That is the cause for which he has Voila le sujet pour quoi on l'a ar- 

been arrested. rete. 

In the first example, a quoi, is for auxquelles ; in the second, 
sans quoi is for sans lesquelles ; in the third, pour quoi is for 
pour lequel. 

In our days, auxquelles, sans lesquelles, and pour lequel would 
certainly be preferred. 

778. But quoi has a vague meaning which makes it prefera- 



PRONOUN. 189 

ble to lequel, where its antecedent is ce or rien, that or nothing, 
whose signification is also vague and indefinite ; therefore, we 
must say, 

It is that of which we do not think C'est a quoi Ton ne songe gueres. 
much. 

There is nothing which I should H n'y a rien a quoi je sois plus dis- 
like better to do. pose. 

It is that of which I always dream. C'est de quoi]e reve sans cesse. 

779. But as we must always have some oddities in a lan- 
guage, dont ought to be preferred to de quoi, with Hen as an 
antecedent ; as, 

There is nothing which we cannot H n'y a rien dont Dieu ne soit l'au- 
trace to God as the author. teur. 



Of the Relative Pronoun Ou. 

780. The relative pronoun ou is of either number and gen- 
der, but relates only to things. 

It is used alone, and with the prepositions de, of, and par, by, 
with which it makes the two compound relatives oVou and 
par ou. 

781. These three relatives are used for auquel, to which, 
dans lequel, in which, duquel, from which, and par lequel, 
by which ; as, 

There house where I live. La maison ou je vis (dans laquelle). 

That is the end to which I aim. C'est le but ou je tends (auquel). 

We ought to consider a good educa- On doit regarder l'education comme 

tion as a blessing on which de- un bienfait d^ou depend le bon- 

pends the happiness of kingdoms heur des royaumes et des peuples 

and people. (duquel). 

The places through which he has Les lieux far oit il a passe sont ties 

passed are very interesting. interessants (par lesquels). 

782. We ought to use the relatives ou, d'ou, and par ou only 
when their antecedents, or the verbs to which they are joined, 
indicate a sort of motion or rest, at least metaphorically, as 
is expressed in the two first sentences. 

The word maison, in French, has two significations ; when 
it means house, we say : 

The house which he has left. La maison d'ou il est sorti. 

When it means race, we say : 
The family which he comes from. La maison dont il sort. 



190 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



OF THE ABSOLUTE PRONOUNS. 

783. Absolute pronouns are those which have no relation to 
an antecedent. 

They are five in number : 

Who, whom, qui. 

What, que, quoi, quel. 

Which, lequel. 

784. Those pronouns are the same words which have al- 
ready been used as relative pronouns, but their functions in the 
language not being the same, they have received a new name 
appropriated to their new employment. 

There is no difficulty in distinguishing, qui, absolute, from 
qui , relative. 

785. Qui is an absolute pronoun when it may be changed 
thus : what person, quelle personne, or by who is that who, quel 
est celui qui, in this sentence : 

Who doubts that a young- man who Qui doute que le jeune homme qui 

practises virtue enjoys more real cultive la vertu, ne goute un bon- 

happiness than one who spends heur plus solide que celui qui 

his life in dissipation and pleas- passe sa vie dans la dissipation et 

ure. le plaisir ? 

The first qui is the only one which is absolute, because it is 
the only one that may be changed to signify what person. The 
other two are relatives. 

786. Qui, when an absolute pronoun, is only said of per- 
sons, whether employed by itself, or with a preposition ; as, 

Who speaks ? Qui parle ? 

To whom do you speak ? A qui parlez-vous ? 

Of whom do you speak ? Be qui parlez-vous ? 

With whom are you ? Avec qui etes-vous ? 

Foreigners often commit the fault of applying this pronoun to 
things ; it must be avoided carefully. 

787. The pronoun qui, offering to the mind but a vague and 

indefinite idea, is generally used in the singular and masculine ; 

as, 

Which of you will be bold enough Qui de vous sera assez hardi pour 
to attack me? m'attaquer ? 



PRONOUN. 191 

788. But in some few cases it may relate to a noun feminine 
and plural ; as, 

Who are those people we see on the Qui sont ces personnes que nous 
hill ? voyons sur la colline ? 

However, quelles sont ces personnes, &c., would be better. 

789. The absolute pronoun qui forms a great number of 
Gallicisms, which have been adopted from frequent use ; as, 

They are fighting to know who shall lis se battent pour savoir qui l'aura, 
have him. or, a qui Vaura. 

You will find your match. Vous trouverez a qui parler. 

Which is worse. Qui pis est. 

It was, which would be the more C'etait a qui des deux serait le plus 
foolish of the two. fou. 

790. When the absolute pronoun qui is used interrogatively 
without a preposition, it is turned by many persons by who is it 
who, qui est-ce qui ; as, 

Who has said that to you ? Qui vous l'a dit ? qui est ce qui vous 

l'a dit ? 

But this last mode of expression is a true pleonasm and a 
Gallicism, which ought to be avoided. 

791. In proverbial interrogative sentences, qui is said of 

things ; as, 

What makes the bird ? Its plu- Qui fait l'oiseau ? C'est le plu- 
mage, mage. 

What makes the monk? It is not Qui fait le moine ? Ce n'est pas 

his dress. son habit. 

But we should not say : 

What are the states of the north ! Qui sont les itats du nord ? 
What are the ancient empires ? Qui sont les anciens empires. 

because these phrases are not proverbial; quel, quelle, &c, 
ought to be used instead of qui. 

792. Que and quoi are only said of things in all circum- 
stances. They signify what thing, quelle chose ; as, 

What could courage do for us in Que pouvait la valeur dans ce fu- 

this fatal battle ? neste combat ? 

What are you occupied about now ? A quoi . vous occupez-vous mainte- 

nant ? 

793. Que is sometimes used for de quoi and a quoi idiomat- 
ically ; as, 



192 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

What is the use of science without Que (a quoi) sert la science sans la 

virtue ? vertu ? 

What is the use for a miser to own Que (de quoi) sert a, l'avare d'avoir 

treasures ? des tresors ? 

794. In interrogative sentences, que has the meaning of 
qu'est-ce-que, what is it that. 

What do you say ? Que dites vous ? 

means qtfest-ce que vous dites ; but this expression ought to be 
rejected for the other. 

795. Que and quoi govern the preposition of, c?e, when 
placed before an adjective ; as, 

What is the news ? Que dit-on de nouveau ? 

What is more instructive and amu- Quoi de plus instructif et de plus 

sing than to read the celebrated amusant que de lire les auteurs 

writers in their own language ? celebres dant leur propre langue ? 

796. Quoi is seldom used in French, but its use becomes 
indispensable, when it supplies a whole sentence, and saves the 
necessity of repetition ; as, 

He is a wise legislator who, after C'est un sage legislateur qui, apres 

giving to his nation such laws as avoir donne a sa nation des lois 

to make its inhabitants happy and capables d'en rendre les habitants 

good, made them swear that they bons et heureux, leur fit jurer de 

would not violate any of them n'en violer aucune durant son ab- 

during his absence ; after which, sence ; aprbs quoi, il partit, s'exi- 

he went away, exiled himself from la soi-meme de sa patrie, et 

his country, and died poor in a mourut pauvre dans une terre 

foreign land. etrangere. 

In this sentence, quoi expresses most of its first part ; 

thus, 

Leur avoir donne de bonnes lois et leur avoir fait jurer, &c. 

797. Quel always precedes a noun of which it takes the 
number and gender. 

It is said of persons and things, and denotes generally a feel- 
ing of admiration ; as, 

What man may expect constant Quel homme peut se promettre un 

happiness ? bonheur constant ? 

What modesty, what gentleness, Quelle mo destie^we^e douceur, mais 
but, above all, what artless and surtout quelle grace naive et pi- 
lively grace ! quante ! 

798. Ohy oVou, and par ou are absolute pronouns, when they 
are found at the beginning of a sentence, and they may be 



PRONOUN. 193 

turned by the noun of a thing united to the pronoun quel, or 
when they stand for what, quoi; as, 

Where do you go ? (En quel lieu) ou allez-vous ? 

Where do you come from ? (Be quel lieu) d'ou venez-vous ? 

What place do you intend to pass (Par quel lieu) par ou passerez- 

by ? vous ? 

What do you aspire to ? (A quoi) ou aspirez-vous ? 

How do you intend to succeed ? (Par quoi) par ou en viendrez-vous 

a bout ? 



OF INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 



799. Indefinite pronouns are words, which serve to designate 
in an indefinite manner, which relate only to a vague object, 
and present to the mind nothing fixed or precise. 

800. The words which are called indefinite pronouns are not 
all real pronouns ; some would be better qualified by being 
called adjectives ; but as they are generally known under the 
name of pronouns, for the sake of clearness we will give them 
this denomination. 

801. Indefinite pronouns are divided into four classes, dis- 
tinct from each other ; as, 

1st. Those which are never joined to a noun. 
2d. Those which are always joined to a noun. 
3d. Those which are sometimes joined to a noun, and some- 
times not. 

4th. Those which are followed by the conjunction que. 



Of Indefinite Pronouns which are never joined to a Noun. 
802. The pronouns of this class are the following : 

On, some one, they, you, we, somebody, 

people. 

Quelqu'un, somebody, one, some one. 

Quiconque, whoever, whosoever. 

Chacun, everybody, each, every one. 

L'un l'autre, one another. 

Autrui, other people, others. 

Personne, nobody, no one. 

Rien, nothing, not any thing, any thing. 

17 



194 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

These words are real pronouns, because they are never 
joined to the noun to which they relate, but on the contrary 
take its place. 

803. On. 

This pronoun is always used as a nominative ; it indicates a 
sort of third person vague and indefinite ; it is probably derived 
from the word homme, man, as an abbreviation ; in fact, when 
we say, 

One plays, one studies, On joue, on etudie, 

it is as if we said, man plays, man studies. This pronoun, 
which is in constant use in the language, is only said of persons, 
and always governs the singular and the masculine ; as, 

They. 

They speak, they play. On parle, on joue. 

They came to light. On en vint aux mains. 

One. 

One loves to flatter one's self. On aime a se flatter. 

A man. 

A man is not always master of his On n'est pas toujours maitre de soi. 
own temper. 

A woman. 

It is not always in the power of a On n'est pas toujours maitresse 
woman to go where she likes. d'aller ou l'on veut. 

Somebody. 

Somebody knocks at the door. On frappe a. la porte. 

People. 
People think and say openly. On pense et Ton dit tout haut. 

We. 

We acquire experience at our own On acquiert de 1'experience a, ses 
expense. . depens. 

You. 

You will find troublesome people On trouve par tout des importuns. 
everywhere. 



When I tell you that I depend upon Quand on vous dit que Ton compte 
you. sur vous. 



PRONOUN. 195 

Although this pronoun, by its vague and indefinite nature 
ought never to govern the plural or the feminine, as we have 
already stated, usage has authorized a few cases in which this 
rule is not observed, as may be seen in the preceding exam- 
ples ; but they do not affect the rule, and should be con- 
sidered as mere idiomatical expressions. 

To those of the preceding illustrations, in which the plural 
and feminine are employed, we shall add the following ; 

(A woman.) 

One is not always young and pretty. On n'est pas toujours jeune et 

jolie. 
When one is pretty, one is not igno- Quand on est jolie, on ne l'ignore 

rant of it. pas. 

They are not slaves to be so badly On n'est pas des esclaves pour etre 

treated. si maltraites. 

804. When the pronoun on is preceded by any of the 
words, et) ow, si, V ought to be prefixed to the pronoun for the 
sake of euphony ; as, 

If we knew how to limit our wishes, Si Von savait borner ses desirs, on 

we should spare ourselves a great s'epargnerait bien des maux, et 

deal of trouble, and we should Von se procurerait beaucoup d'a- 

gain many advantages. vantages. 

The place where one goes. Le lieu ok Von va. 

805. But this rule should not be observed where the pro- 
noun on is followed by a word beginning with an Z, as Ze, la, 
Zwi, les, &c, even for the mere satisfaction of the ear ; as, 

They will receive a letter, and they On recevra une lettre, et on la lira 
will read it aloud. tout haut. 

Von la lira would be intolerable. 

806. The same remark is applicable to the word que, when 
followed by a verb beginning with the letter c, having the 
sound of k ; as, 

We learn much more easily what On apprend beaucoup plus facile- 
we understand, than that which ment les choses que Von comprend, 
we do not. que celles que Von ne comprend 

pas. 

Laziness is a fault which is rarely La paresse est un defaut que Von 
corrected. corrige rarement. 

807. But when que is followed by a verb beginning with 
any other letter than c, then the Z is suppressed or not, ac- 
cording to taste. 



196 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

SOS. The pronoun on should be repeated before each verb 
which has it for its nominative ; as, 

They praise him, blame him, threat- On le loue, on le blame, on le me- 

en him, caress him ; but whatever nace, on le caresse ; mais quoiqu'o/i 

they do, they cannot get along fasse, on ne peut en venir a bout, 
with him. 

809. When the pronoun on is repeated, it must relate to the 
same object. The following phrase, 

One believes himself to be loved, On croit etre aime, et Von ne vous 
and one is not loved, aime pas, 

is incorrect, because the pronoun on has two antecedents ; it 

is not the same person who believes he is loved, and who does 

not love ; we ought to say, 

On croit etre aime, et on ne Pest pas. 



810. Quelqu J un. 
Some one, somebody, one. 

Quelqu'un has two different significations, whether it refers 
to a noun or not. 

811. When it refers to a noun, it signifies une personne y a 
person, and is never said of things. 

812. When, with this meaning, it is used as a nominative, it 
takes the feminine and plural, but never when objective ; as, 

Nominative. 
Have any of you, ladies, heard of Quelqu'unedexo}is,mesdames,a4-ette 

this story ? entendu cette histoire ? 

Some one says that you are a rogue. Quelques uns assurent que vous etes 

un coquin. 

Objective. 
I have it from somebody. Je le tiens de quelqu'un. 

I heard some one say. J'ai oui dire a quelqu'un. 

813. The last two examples, applied to a lady or to ladies, 
should not take the feminine or plural ; it would be wrong to 
say, 

Je le tiens de quelqu'une. 

J'ai entendu dire a quelques uns. 

814. When quelqu'un does not refer to a noun, it is said of 
persons and things, and takes both number and gender. 

It is generally followed by a noun or a pronoun, preceded 
by of; as, 



PRONOUN. 197 



(Speaking of a lady.) 



I know some of your friends. Je connais quelqu'une de vos amies. 

Would some of you do me a favor? Quelqu'une de vous voudrait-elle me 

faire une faveur ? 
Have you still any of those pam- Avez vous encore quelques unes de 
phlets ? 9 ces brochures ? 

815. We have employed the word generally when saying 
that a noun or a pronoun preceded by de ought to follow 
quelqu'un in this meaning, because it may sometimes be used 
alone, in phrases like these ; 

We expect some gentlemen ; some Nous attendons des messieurs ; il 
will probably come. en viendra bien quelqu'un. 

Several ladies have promised me to Plusieurs dames m'ont promis de 
come ; some will, I hope. venir, il en viendra quelqu'une, 

j'espere. 



816. Quiconque. 

Whoever, whosoever. 

Quiconque signifies quelque personne que ce soit whoever it 
may be ; it has no plural, is generally masculine, but takes the 
feminine occasionally. 

It is only said of persons, and has the peculiarity of contain- 
ing the relative qui and its antecedent, so as to be used as the 
nominative of two verbs, or to be the nominative of one and 
the object of another ; as in the following sentences, 

Whoever knows men, learns not to Quiconque connait les hommes, op- 
trust them. prend a s'en defier. 

This speech is for those who are Ce discours s'adresse a, quiconque est 

guilty. coupable. 

In the first sentence, quiconque is nominative of the verbs 
connait and apprend, and in the second, it is nominative of est 
and objective of s'adresse. 

817. In the following sentence, according to the decision of 

the Academy, the pronoun is used in the feminine, as having 

a positive relation to women ; 

Whoever of you will be bold enough Quiconque de vous sera assez hardie 
to slander me, I will cause her to pour medire de moi, je Ten ferai 
repent of it. repentir. 

But this mode of expression is out of use, and should be 

avoided ; it should be as follows, 

Celle de vous qui sera assez hardie, &c. 

17* 



19S FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

818. Chacun, 

Everybody, every one, each. 

Chacun signifies all the individuals of a species taken one 
after another ; it is said of persons and things, and means 
chaque personne, everybody, or, every sample, chaque exemple ; 
as, 

Go, each to your house. Allez vous en, chacun (chaque per- 

sonne) chez vous. 
Return those medals each into its Remettez ces medailles, chacune 
proper place. (chaque exemple) a sa place. 

819. Chacun has no plural, but takes the feminine, as may 
be seen in the last example. 

This pronoun follows the same rule as quelqu'un, and is, as 
as well as that pronoun, only applied to persons when it has 
no antecedent, but it never takes the plural. 

Every one of you, ladies, has heard Chacune de vous, mesdames, a en- 
of this. tendu dire cela. 

820. With an antecedent, on the contrary, it refers to per- 
sons and things, taking either gender, 

Take these pamphlets, and send Prenez ces brochures, et envoyez 
each to its direction. chacune a son adresse. 

821. When chacun is followed by a noun or pronoun, which 
it governs, it requires the preposition of before both ; 

Try separately each of your friends, Eprouvez chacun de vos amis separe- 
and see how many are sincere. ment, et voyez combien il y en a 

de sinceres. 

Perhaps you will find an enemy in Peut-etre trouverez vous un ennemi 
each of them. dans chacun d'eucc. 

822. The old phrase, un chacun, for every one, is no 
longer admitted in the language. 

We have now" to solve a difficulty, so much the more em- 
barrassing that its solution rests upon a very subtle mode of 
reasoning. 

823. Chacun, although being always singular, is sometimes 
followed by the adjective pronouns, son, sa, ses, his, her, and 
sometimes by leur, leurs, their ; the following rules must be 
observed in these cases. 

824. When in the sentence there are no plural nouns, of 
which chacun is the distributive, son, sa, ses, ought to be used ; 



PRONOUN. 199 

He gave each one his share. II donna a, chacun sa part. 

Let every one mind his own busi- Que chacun songe a ses affaires. 

ness. 

We shall reward each one according Nous recompenserons chacun suivant 

to his merit. son merite. 

825. But when chacun is contrasted with a plural noun, of 
which it is the distributive, the following distinction should 
be made ; 

If the mind rests more directly on the distributive, which is 
always singular, son, sa, ses are used after it ; as, 

Men ought to love each other, each Les hommes devraient s'aimer les 
for his own interest. uns les autres, chacun pour son 

propre interet. 

They have all brought their offer- lis ont tous apporte lews offrandes 
ings to the temple, each accord- au temple, chacun suivant ses 
ing to his means and devotion. moyens et sa devotion. 

If we follow the mind in the construction of these two sen- 
tences, we find the first may be turned in this way ; Men ought 
to love each other, each for the interest of each ; therefore each 
occupies the mind, and not men, and the pronoun of the third 
person singular is used. 

The second sentence means, that those who had brought 
their offerings had done it, each one according to the devotion 
and means of each, and not of all. 

826. But if chacun contrasts with a plural noun, of which it 
is the distributive, and the mind is impressed more particularly 
with the plural idea than with the distributive itself, then leur, 
leurs, are used after chacun ; as, 

Men ought to have, each for the Les hommes devraient avoir, chacun 

interest of all, love for one an- pour leur interet, de l'amour les 

other. uns pour les autres. 

Alexander wished that even the Alexandre voulut que les betes 
beasts, and the walls of cities, memes, et les murailles des villes, 
should testify, each one in its temoignassent chacune a leur ma- 
way, their grief for the death of niere, leur douleur de la mort 
Hephaestion. d'Ephestion. 

Leur is used in these two sentences, because the first means 
that men ought to love each other, not for the interest of each 
individual, but for that of all ; and the second signifies that the 
beasts and walls ought to show their grief according to the way 
of all the beasts and all the walls, and not according to the 
manner of each beast or wall in particular ; the mind is then 



200 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

impressed with the idea of the plural, therefore the pronoun of 
the third person plural ought to be used. 

827. Besides this mode of reasoning, to apply the pronoun 
right, there are indications in the construction of the sentence 
which tell which of the pronouns of the third person singular 
or plural must be employed ; they are as follows : 

828. When chacun is placed after the regimen of the verb, 
which regimen expresses the objects to be distributed, the col- 
lective meaning denoted by the plural is expressed and com- 
pleted, and it remains only to apply chacun to each individual 
of the species expressed by the collective ; thus, son, sa, or 
ses must be chosen. 

829. When, on the contrary, chacun is placed before the 
regimen, which denotes the object to be distributed, the col- 
lective meaning is not expressed. When chacun appears in the 
sentence, that collective idea, which is plural, exists and is 
conveyed to the last ; then leur or leurs must be employed. 

This remark refers to the two last examples, and the other 
to the two first. 

830. But sometimes the verb has no regimen ; then we 
can only refer to what the mind intends to express, and use 
the singular or plural according to the result. In the following 
sentence : 

All have voted, each according to Tous ont vote chacun suivant ses, or 
his or their judgment, leurs lumieres, 

if we wish to say, that, in fact, each of the judges has voted 
according to the best of his mind, but that all have done the 
same, so that this last circumstance is the most striking of the 
two ; then we must say, 

Touts les juges ont vote suivant leurs lumieres, 

because the words touts and chacun occupy but the second 
place in the mind ; but, if we do not care about the judges as 
a body, but only mean that each one of them has given his 
opinion, so that this idea is the principal object of our thoughts, 
then we must say : 

Touts les juges ont vote chacun suivant ses lumieres ; 

but, after all, these distinctions are so nice, that in cases sim- 



PRONOUN. 201 

ilar to this it is better to use the singular, because the collective 

sense has finished with the verb. 

831. When chacun is followed by a pronoun, this pronoun 

is always used in the plural ; as, 

The queen said to the deputies, that La reine dit aux deputes, qu'il etait 
it was time for them to return to terns qu'ilss'enretournassont cha- 
their home. cun chez eux. 

832. Autrui. 

Other people, others. 

Autrui signifies others, and is only said of persons ; it is 
rarely used speaking of a single individual ; it has neither gen- 
der nor number ; it is never joined to an adjective, and is al- 
ways preceded by a preposition ; as, 

Do not envy other people's property. N'enviez pas lebien d' autrui. 
Do not do to others what you would Ne faites pas a autrui ce que vous 
not have done to you. ne voudriez pas qu'on vous fit. 

833. The pronoun autrui presents a difficulty, which is, to 
know whether and when the adjective posesssive pronouns, son, 
sa, ses, leur, and leurs, or the relative pronoun en must be used 
with it. 

Son, sa, ses, leur, and leurs ought to be used with autrui, when 

the nouns to which these pronouns are prefixed, are themselves 

preceded by a preposition ; as, 

You may take interest in others, Vous pouvez epouser les interets 
without approving all their ac- d' autrui sans etre le panegyriste 
tions. de toutes leurs actions. 

834. But when the nouns to which son, sa, ses, leur, or leurs 

ought to be prefixed are not preceded by a preposition, then 

the relative en is used with the article ; as, 

Take interest in others, but take Prenez les interets d'autrui, mais 
care not to espouse their quarrels. ayez soin de iVen pas epouser les 

querelles. 

Leurs querelles would be a fault. 

835. Uun V autre. 
One another. 

Uun V autre is said of persons and things .; it takes the fem- 
inine, Vune Vautre, and the plural, as, les uns les autres, les 



202 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

unes les autres ; and always keeps the article before each of 
the words un and autre. 

These two words are used conjointly or separately. 

836. When used conjointly, they express a reciprocity be- 
tween several persons or things ; then Vun acts as governing, 
and V autre as governed, so that the last only admits of a prep- 
osition before it ; as, 

One must help another, On doit se secourir Vun V autre, 

which means, 

L'un doit secourir l'autre ; 

(Vun being nominative, and V autre objective.) 

People always suffer on account of Les peuples soufrrent toujours des 
the wars which states carry on guerres que les etats se sont les 
against (each] other) one another. uns aucc autres. 

837. Uun Vautre should not be mistaken for Vun et V au- 
tre, which has a signification entirely different ; when we say, 
They destroy each other, lis se detruisent Vun et Vautre, 

we express that each one destroys himself ; but when we say, 

lis se detruisent Vun Vautre, 

we express that one destroys the other ; as, 

Fire and water destroy each other, Le feu et l'eau se detruisent Vun 
or one another. Vautre. 

Uun et Vautre, in a sentence like this, would have no meaning. 

838. The two words, Z'wiand Vautre, when used separately, 

indicate division ; they are no longer a single pronoun, but two 

distinct ones ; then Vun may be governed by a preposition as 

well as Vautre, which is not the case when they are united. 

Uun is used for the yerson or thing spoken first ; Vautre, for 

the other ; as, 

Passions understand one another ; Les passions s'entendent les unes 
if we give way to one, we cause avec les autres; si l'on se laisse 
another to appear. aller aux unes, on attire les autres. 



839. Personne. 
Nobody, no one. 

Personne is either a noun or a pronoun, but in either case 
it is only said of persons. 



PRONOUN. 203 

Personne, as a noun, is always feminine. 

Personne, as a pronoun, is always masculine and singular. 

840. Personne, as a pronoun, signifies nobody, no one, nul, 
qui que ce soit. 

It is always followed by a negation in affirmative sentences ; 
when used interrogatively, the negation is sometimes dispensed 
with; as, 

There is no person so badly in- II n'y a. personne si peu instruit des 

formed about business as not to affaires qui ne sache quels sont ses 

know his own interest. interets. 

No one knows whether he is worthy Personne ne sait sHl est digne d'a- 

of love or hatred. mour ou de haine. 

T - ir . „ - t i „ 3 S Personne veut-il venir avec moi ? or 

Is any one willing to come with me r < n . ., . , 

•^ ° ^ Personne ne veut-il venir avec moi ? 

That office suits him better than any Cette place lui convient mieux qu'& 

body else. personne. (Elliptical.) 

841. Personne, used for qui que ce soit, whoever, is only 
employed in sentences which denote exclusion ; as, 

Is there any one here ? No, no- Y-a-t-il quelqu'un ici ? Non, per- 
body. sonne. 

842. Personne here is used elliptically for il n'y a personne; 
so that, if the negation is not apparent in the sentence, it is 
easily supplied by the mind, in destroying the ellipsis. 

843. When personne means quelqu'un, somebody, it is used 
only as nominative, and in phrases expressing interrogation or 
doubt ; then it is never followed by the negation ; as, 

I doubt if any body has ever de- Je doute que personne (quelqu'un) 
scribed nature so well as Guessner. ait jamais peint la nature aussi 

bien que Guessner. 
Has any one ever told a tale with Personne (quelqu'un) a-t-il jamais 
more candor than La Fontaine ? conte plus nafvementque La Fon- 

taine ? 
If ever any one is bold enough to Si jamais personne (quelqu'un) est 
undertake it, he will succeed. assez hardi pour l'entreprendre, 

il reussira. 

844. Although the generality of grammarians admit that the 
pronoun personne is always masculine and singular, some pre- 
tend that when it evidently refers to ladies, it ought to take the 
feminine ; we agree with them, that in such cases the mas- 
culine should not be used, but we further say, that the pro- 
noun ought not to be used at all, and the phrase be turned so 
as to dispense with it, as in the following ; instead of saying, 



204 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Ladies, there are none of you bold Mesdames, il n'y a personne de vous 
enough to deny the truth of my assez hardie pour nier la verite de 
arguments ; mes arguments ; 

the sentence ought to be turned thus : 

Mesdames, y-a-t-il aucune de vous qui soit assez hardie pour, &c. 

The difficulty thus disappears, and the sentence is correct. 

845. Rien. 
Nothing, any thing. 

Rien is also either a noun or pronoun. 

As a noun, it signifies a thing of little value. 

As a pronoun, it means nothing, is always singular and mas- 
culine, and only said of things. 

Rien has two different significations, whether it is used with 
or without negation. 

846. Rien, accompanied by a negation, signifies nulle chose, 
any thing ; as, 

It is better to do nothing than to II vaut mieux ne rien faire que de 
spend one's time in trifles. faire des riens. 

In this sentence, the first word rien is a pronoun, means noth- 
ing, and is preceded by the negation ; the second word riens 
is in the plural as a noun, and means trifles. 

He does not apply himself to any II ne s'applique a rien de solide. 
thing substantial. 

847. Rien, joined to the verb compter 7 to count, although 
without a negation, still signifies nothing ; as, 

When one speaks as you do, it Quandon parlecomme vous le faites, 

makes others think that you count on donne a. penser que Von compte 

for nothing virtue, honor, and pour rien, la vertu, l'honneur, et 

probity. la probite. 

848. Rien, without a negation, signifies quelque chose, some- 
thing, and is used only in sentences expressing interrogation or 
doubt ; as, 

I doubt if there is any thing better Je doute que rien (quelque chose) 

calculated to make an impression soit plus capable de faire impres- 

upon people, than the sight of the sion sur les peuples, que la vue des 

calamities which have visited malheursqu'aeprouveslaFrance. 
France. 

Is any thing better calculated to Rien flatte-t-il si delicieusement 

flatter the mind and the ear than 1'esprit et l'oreille, qu'un discours 

a speech wisely conceived and no- sagement congu et noblement ex- 



bly delivered ? prime 



PRONOUN. 205 

849. Rien, used as a direct object, is, in the simple tenses 

of verbs, placed after the verb, and in the compound tenses, 

between the auxiliary and the past participle ; as, 

He says nothing. II ne dit rien. 

He has said nothing. II n'a rien dit. 

850. But when it is the object of an infinitive, it is placed 
before that infinitive ; as, 

I cannot give you any thing. Je ne puis vous rien donner. 

As an indirect regimen it is always placed after the verb, what- 
ever may be the mood ; as, 

Not to think of any thing is better Ne penser a rien vaut mieux que de 
than to think of evil. penser au mal. 

Rien governs the preposition of, de, before the following 

adjective ; as, 

Is any thing more delightful ? Est-il rien de plus dilicieux 9 

That man has nothing pleasing Cet homme n'a en lui rien de plai- 
about him. sant. 



Of Indefinite Pronouns always joined to a Noun. 

851. The pronouns of this class are five in number ; as, 

Quelque, some. 

Chaque, every, each. 

Quelconque, whoever, whatever. 

Certain, certain, some. 

Un, a, an. 

These words ought not to be classed as pronouns ; they are 
adjectives ; but as custom and usage have determined their de- 
nomination, we shall keep it, so as to be understood by all. 

852. Quelque. 
Some, any. 

Quelque signifies one or several among a greater number ; it 
is said of persons and things, and takes either number and gen- 
der ; as, 

Do you bring any news ? Apportez-vous quelque nouvelle ? 

Some (a) writer has said that. Quelque auteur a dit cela. 

I have bought some books. J'ai achete quelques livres. 

I heard from some persons that you J'ai entendu dire par quelques per- 
were dead. sonnes que vous etiez mort. 

18 



206 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

853. Chaque. 

Every, each. 

Chaque is of either gender, but has no plural ; it is a dis- 
tributive adjective which designates a person or a thing taken 
separately. 

Each man has his tastes, each coun- Chaque homrae a ses gouts, chaque 
try its manners. pays ses usages. 

The English pronoun every gives rise to many mistakes 
among foreigners, and consequently requires some explanation. 

854. When every is joined to a noun, the extent of its sig- 
nification must be ascertained before translating it ; if the mean- 
ing of the noun, joined to the pronoun each, awakens in the mind 
the idea of individuality, this pronoun ought to be expressed 
by the word chaque ; as, 

During the review, each soldier re - Pendant la revue, chaque soldat re- 
ceived a compliment for his good gut un compliment pour sa con- 
behaviour in presence of the duite en presence de l'ennemi. 
enemy. 

At the exhibition of paintings each A l'exposition de peinture, chaque 
picture was placed in a proper tableau etait place dans un jour 
light. convenable. 

The mind, in these two sentences, cannot help dividing the 
soldiers and pictures by individualities, because one soldier re- 
ceived his compliment after another had received his, and each 
picture was placed one by one, so as to receive its proper light. 

855. But if, on the contrary, the meaning expressed by each, 
and the noun which follows presents to the mind the idea of a 
whole, without reference to individualities, then each is render- 
ed by tout, all ; as, 

Every man is born with good and Touts les hommes naissent avec de 

bad propensities. bons et mauvais penchants. 

I visited my cellar and found every J'ai visite ma cave et j'ai trouve 

bottle empty. toutes les bouteilles vides. 

In these two sentences the mind attaches no importance to 
the individuality of man and bottle, it is struck only with the 
idea of them, as a whole, and every is expressed by tout. 

856. When chaque is used for every, it should always be 
followed by a noun ; this phrase, which is generally used, 

These books cost me one dollar Ces livres me coutent une gourde 
each, chaque, 



PRONOUN. 207 

is wrong, and ought to be turned thus ; 

Chacun de ces livres me coute une gourde. 

857. Quelconque. 

Whoever, whatever. 

Quelconque is a real adjective, of either gender and number ; 
it means quelque ce soit, whatever (it may be), quelqu'il soit, 
quelqu'elle soit, whoever (he or she may be). 

858. Although generally applied to things, it is sometimes 
said of persons. 

859. It is generally accompanied by a negation and placed 
after it ; then it is only used in the singular. 

He was left with nothing at all. II ne lui est demeure chose quelcon- 
que (not used). 

There is no reason which could II r?'y a raison quelconque capable 

compel him to do it. de l'y obliger (not used). 

There is nobody in the world whom II n'y a homme quelconque auquel je 

I may trust. puisse me fier (not used). 

A line being given, you must find Une lignegiteZcon^Meetantdonnee, 

its length. trouvez sa longueur. 

Two points being given, you must Deux points quelconques etant don- 

find the third. nis, trouvez le troishkne. 

860. Certain. 
Certain, some. 

Certain generally means some, quelque ; it is said of persons 
and things, and takes either number and gender. 

It is usually preceded by un, a, an, but sometimes not ; as, 

I know this from a certain author. Je sais ceci oVun certain auteur. 
Certain facts have come to my ear. Certains faits sont parvenus jus- 

qu'a moi. 

861. The pronoun certain must not be mistaken for the ad- 
jective, which means sure, positive ; as, 

A certain fact and a fact certain are Un certain fait et un fait certain 
two different things. sont deux choses tres differentes. 

862. Un. 
A, an. 

This pronoun, improperly named by most grammarians an 
indefinite article, has a vague and indefinite sense, and means 
some, certain, quelque certain ; it is applied to persons and 
things, takes either gender, and has no plural except when pre- 
ceded by the article the, les ; as, 



208 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

We have seen a man running-. Nous avons vu un homme qui cou- 

rait. 

I heard a handsome woman sing- J'ai entenduwne belle femme chant- 
ing, er. 

Some were talking, some were Les uns parlaient, les autres riaient. 
laughing. 



Of Indefinite Pronouns sometimes joined to Nouns, sometimes 

not. 

863. The pronouns of this class are the following : 

Nul, No, none. 

Aucun, " 

Pas un, no not one. 

Autre, other. 

L'un et 1'autre, both, either. 

Meme, same. 

Tel, such. 

Plusieurs, several, many. 

Tout, all, every, every thing. 

These words, employed by themselves, are real pronouns ; 
when joined to a noun they are mere adjectives. 

864. Nul 

No, no one. 

Nul, no, no one, either pronoun or adjective, is a sign of 
exclusion ; it is always accompanied by a negation ; it is of 
either gender, but never takes the plural when used as a pro- 
noun. 

No one knows whether he deserves Nul ne sait s'il est digne d'amour 

love or hatred. ou de haine. 

No one shall be received in my Nulle ne sera re§ue dans ma fa- 
family, unless she deserves it mille, a moins qu'elle ne le me- 
(speaking of ladies). rite. 

865. The pronoun nul may be followed by the preposition 
of, de, in sentences like the following : 

None of those who went there have Nul de ceux qui y ont ete n'en est 
returned. revenu. 

866. Nul, as an adjective, takes the feminine, but no plural, 
except when referring to a noun expressed before ; and when 
meaning a thing of little or no value ; as, 



PRONOUN. 209 

There is no truth in this picture. II n'y a nulle verite dans ce tableau. 
These treaties, these deeds are Ces traites, ces actes sont nuls. 
void. 

867. The Academy authorizes the use of nul, adjective, as 
a regimen ; as, 

This man is so obstinate that he Cet homme est si entier qu'il ne 
will hear nothing. se rend a nulle raison. 

But it is better to give preference to aucun, any, and say, 
Cet homme est si entier qu'il ne se rend a aucun raison. 

868. Aucun. 

No, no one. 

Aucun, as a pronoun, means no, no one, nul, it takes either 
gender, is always accompanied by a negative, and is only used 
in the plural, in the language of the courts of law, and in light 
style, after the manner of Marot. It is no longer used in the 
singular, when signifying some one, quelqu'un ; as, 

Some one told me you were dead Aucun m'a dit que vous etiez mort 
one hundred years ago. il y a cent ans (not used). 

This sentence is no longer admitted into the language. 

I have looked for your books, but I J'ai cherche vos livres,mais je n'en 
have not found any. ai trouve aucun. 

No one is permitted to trespass on II n'estpermis kaucuns d'empieter 
another's property. sur la propriete d'autrui (term of 

law). 

Marotic style. 
Some have said that in this wicked Aucuns ont dit que dans ce siecle 

age, &c. felon, &c. 

Some will say that I am crazy. HP aucuns diront que je suis fou. 

869. When followed by the preposition of, aucun is accom- 
panied by the negation, except in interrogative sentences ; as, 

No one has yet given me her exer- Aucune de vous ne m'a encore 
cises. donne ses exercises. 

Will any one of you tell me why Aucune de vous me dira-t-elle pour- 
the earth turns around the sun ? quoi la terre tourne autour du 

soleil ? 

870. Aucun, used as an adjective, has the meaning of no, 
no one, not any, none ; it is of either gender, and sometimes 
takes the plural. 

It is used with a negation, except in phrases expressing in- 
terrogation or doubt ; as, 
18* 



210 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



You have no way of succeeding in 

this affair. 
I do not wish it, any how. 
When he died he left no will. 

I have paid no attention to your 

sister. 
Was ever any man happier than 

you? 
The best comparison, perhaps, 

which has ever been made is 

that of Pope about the Alps, in 

his Essay on Criticism. 

871. Aucun, when followed 
rule ; as, 

None of the ladies I have loved 

have been true to me. 
Will any person present tell me the 

news of the day ? 

I doubt if any one of the persons 
whom I have known, has been as 
unfortunate as myself. 



Vous n'avez aucun moyen de reus- 

sir dans cette affaire. 
Je ne le veux en aucune maniere. 
II n'a fait aucunes dispositions avant 

sa mort. 
Je n'ai rendu aucuns soins a votre 

soeur. 
Aucun homme fut-il jamais plus 

heureux que vous ? 
La plus belle comparaison qu'il y 

ait peut-itre en aucune langue est 

celle que Pope atiree des Alpes, 

dans son Essai sur la Critique. 

by de, follows the preceding 



Aucune des femmes que j'ai aimees 

ne m'a ete fidele. 
Aucune des personnes presentes 

voudra-t-elle me dire la nouvelle 

du jour ? 
Je doute qu'aucune des personnes 

que j'ai connues, ait ete plus mal- 

heureuse que moi. 



872. Pas un. 
No, not one. 

Pas un, as a pronoun, is only used as a nominative, and in 
familiar or proverbial expressions ; as, 

Not one believes it, not one says it. Pas un ne le croit, pas un ne le dit. 
He is as learned as any one. II est aussi savant que pas un. 

873. It takes either gender, never the plural, and is always 
accompanied by a negation. 

874. Pas un, as an adjective, takes either gender, no plural, 
and is always accompanied by a negation ; it excludes more 
strongly than the adjective aucun; as, 

Of all the works I know there is De touts lesouvrages que jeconnais 
not one without a fault. il n'y en a pas un sans defauts. 

875. Pas un, either as a pronoun or an adjective, is said of 
persons and things. 

Pas un, before a noun or a pronoun, is always followed by 
the preposition of, de. 

There is not one of these paintings II n'y a pas un de ces tableaux qui ne 
which does not come from a great soit d'un grand maitre. 
master. 



PRONOUN. 211 

876. Aucun and pas un appear in many sentences without 
being apparently followed by a noun, but they keep their char- 
acter of adjectives, if they are preceded by the relative pro- 
noun en ; as, 

Of all nations on the globe, there is De toutes les nations quicouvrent le 

not one that has not an idea, more globe, il n'y en a pas une qui n'ait 

or less distinct, of God. une idee, plus ou moins confuse, 

de la Divinite. 

Of the crowd of friends who sur- Du grand nombre d'amis qui vous 
round you in prosperity, some- entourent dans la prosperite, sou- 
times not one remains true in vent il ne vous en reste pas un 
adversity. dans l'adversite. 

877. Autre. 

Other. 

Autre, other, is either a pronoun or an adjective, and 
takes both number and gender ; it is applied to persons and 
things, and serves to distinguish them. 

It is a pronoun when not joined to a noun. 

Would another be more useful to Un autre pourroit-il vous etre plus 
you ? utile ? 

Nevertheless, in this case, it is more of an adjective than 
a pronoun, because there is a noun understood, which is 
homme, man. 

878. It is an adjective when joined to a noun, or preceded 
by the pronoun en, which takes the place of the noun, or when 
used in elliptical sentences ; as, 

The ancients did not believe in Les anciens ne croyaient pas qu'il 

another world. y eut un autre monde. 

The temple of Solomon being de- Le temple de Solomon ayant ete 

stroyed, they built another by detruit, on en rebatit un autre par 

order of Cyrus. les ordres de Cyrus. 

We cannot be happy in this world Nous ne pouvont etre heureux dans 

and the other. ce monde et dans V autre (monde) . 

(Ellipsis.) 

Autre is sometimes used to represent a person, but indefi- 
nitely ; as, 

I had rather you would learn it of J'aime mieux que vous l'appreniez 
any other person than of me. de tout autre que de moi. (El- 

lipsis.) 

879. Vun et Vautre. JVi Pun ni Vautre. 

Both, either. Neither. 

Vun et Vautre signifies the assemblage of several persons 

or things, and takes either number and gender. 



212 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

It is a pronoun when not joined to a noun ; as in the follow- 
ing, 

Both state the same fact. L'un et l'autre rapportent le meme 

fait. 

880. But it is an adjective when joined to a noun in the 
singular ; as, 

It is rare to use both hands equally II est rare qu'on puisse se servir 
well. egalement bien de l'une et l'autre 

main. 

881. Here a difficulty is raised by grammarians ; must the 
verb which follows Pun et Pautre, ni Vun ni Pautre, be placed 
in the singular or plural ? 

Let us first examine the case of Pun el Pautre. The 

Academy thinks that we may indifferently use the singular or 

the plural after Pun et Pautre, and in the last edition of its 

Dictionary, we find ; 

t-v^, • j C Uune et V autre est bonne. 

Either is good. J VuM et ZWg SQnt bonneg 

Voltaire almost always employs the singular ; as, 

Both will soon see their last hour. Vun et V autre bientot voit son heure 

derniere. 
Either thing now would be too l?un et Pautre aujourd'hui seroit 
blamable. trop condamnable. 

Many distinguished authors do the same ; but, notwithstanding 
these respectable authorities, we think the plural alone ought 
to be admitted, because each of the pronouns, Pun, Pautre, 
taking the place of a noun, ought to act upon the verb as the 
nouns would ; therefore, two nouns, employed as nominative, 
always commanding the plural, the singular cannot possibly 
be used after Pun et Pautre. 

882. We think that the same rule ought to be given in 
regard to ni Pun ni Pautre. 

883. Although the Academy, Vaugelas, and others, admit 
of both plural and singular after it ; yet these illustrations given 
by the Academy are not correct ; 

Neither of them has done his Ni Fun ni l'autre n'a fait son de- 
duty, voir. 
Neither of them is his father. Ni l'un ni l'autre n'est son pere. 

There is no difficulty in regard to the first of these two 



PRONOUN. 213 

examples, because the idea of plurality is attached to both 
ni Vun ni Vautre, and devoir ; there are two persons, there 
are two duties, and of course the verb ought to be plural, and 
the pronoun referring to the duty of each ought to be the 
collective pronoun of the third person plural used in the singu- 
lar, because each of the persons spoken of had but one duty to 
perform ; therefore this phrase ought to be read as follows, 

Ni Vun ni V autre n'ont fait leur devoir. 
But can we say, 

Ni 1'un ni l'autre ne sont mon pere ? 

We believe not, because, if we analyze the sentence, we 
find that it signifies this ; 

Ni 1'un ni l'autre ne sont l'homme qui est mon pere. 

Then pere and homme in the singular correspond to a plu- 
rality expressed by ni Vun ni Vautre^ and to a plural verb, 
which is wrong, and against the genius of the language ; we 
could not say, 

Gentlemen, you are not the man Messieurs, vous n'etes pas Vhomme 
who is my father. qui est mon pere. 

The difference between this sentence and the preceding is 
only in the second person plural being substituted for the third ; 
in both cases there is the same plurality, and if the expression 
is incorrect in one case, it is no better in the other. The only 
way of avoiding this difficulty is, then, to give another form to 
the sentence ; and say, 

Aucun des deux n'est mon pere. 

The sense remains the same, and the ambiguity disappears. 

Sometimes ni Vun ni Vautre stands elegantly after the 
verb ; in which case the verb always take the plural ; as, 
Neither of them is dead. lis ne sont morts, ni 1'un ni l'autre. 

884. When the two pronouns, Vun, Vautre, are separated 
by the disjunctive ow, or, there is no difficulty in its use ; the 
result of the use of this word being necessarily to exclude one 
object and retain the other ; the nominative is then forcibly in 
the singular, and the verb ought to follow ; 



214 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

One or the other shall come with Uun ou V autre viendra avec moi. 
me. 

885. Meme. 

Same. 

Meme may be considered either as a pronoun or an ad- 
jective ; it relates to persons and things, and takes either 
gender or number. 

886. When a pronoun, it denotes identity, that is to say, 
that the person or thing so spoken of is no other than that 
which has been spoken of already. Thus, speaking of a man, 
we say, 

The same has come to see me. Le mime est venu me voir. 

Speaking of an affair, 
I always work at the same. Je travaille toujours a la meme. 

887. When an adjective, meme may signify identity or 
similarity ; as, 

(Identity.) 

In Germany, the same churches En Allemagne les mimes eglises 

sometimes serve for Catholics and servent quelquefois pour les cath- 

Protestants. oliques et les protestants. 

(Similarity.) 
It is rare to find two persons of the II est rare de trouver deux personnes 
same character. du mime caractere. 

888. When an adjective, mtme always precedes the noun 
which it qualifies. 

889. Meme is sometimes added to a noun to give more 
force to its signification, and then signifies the word self, in 
English ; as, 

It is virtue itself. C'est la vertu meme. 

It is myself. C'est moi-meme. 

890. Meme, as a pronoun or an adjective, must not be 
mistaken for the adverb, which means even, as in the follow- 
ing ; 

Stars, animals, and even plants, Les astres, les animaux, les plantes 
were among the Egyptian deities. mime, etoient au nombre des di- 

vinites Egyptiennes. 

Meme, here, is placed after plantes, to give more elegance 

and rapidity to the sentence, by means of an ellipsis, the 

conjunction and being suppressed ; the natural construction 

would be, 



PRONOUN. 215 

Les astres, les animaux, et meme les plantes, &c. 

But the other is far preferable. 

The following verses of Racine have been criticized ; 

Jusqu'ici la fortune et la victoire memes 

Cachaient mes cheveux blancs sous trente diademes, 

because it has been supposed that meme was used by him as 
an adjective, qualifying the two nouns, fortune and victoire ; if 
such was the case, Racine would not have failed to recall the 
two nouns, by adding the pronoun elle to meme ; saying, 

La fortune et la victoire elles memes ; 

but meme here is but an adverb, and written in the plural, 
because at the time when Racine was w r riting, usage still per- 
mitted to orthography this adverb memes or meme ; he was then 
right in choosing such a termination as would suit the rhyme of 
the next verse. 

891. Tel 

Such. 

Tel is a pronoun or an adjective, masculine or feminine, 
and applies to persons and things. 

892. Tel, as a pronoun, is used to designate a person or 
thing in an indefinite manner ; as, 

The storm will fall upon some one L'orage tombera sur tel qui ne s'y 
who does not think of it. attend pas. 

It takes the place of a proper name ; as, 

Who told you that ? Such a one. Qui vous a dit cela ? Un tel. 

And, in fine, is used instead of such a person who, in some 

Gallicisms ; as, 

He who sows, does not always reap. Tel qui seme, ne moissone pas tou- 

jours. 

Tel is in this sentence for the pronoun celui, 

893. Tel, as an adjective, indicates a comparison between 
two persons or things, but without expressing what or whom 
they are compared to ; as, 

Such a man as you is born to aspire Un homme tel que vous, est ne pour 

to honor and glory. aspirer a la gloire et aux honneurs. 

The obstinacy of the rebels is such L'obstination des rebelles est telle 

as not to be easily conquered. qu'onnepeutfacilementlavaincre. 



216 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

894. When such, in English, is placed at the beginning of a 
sentence, and used in a partitive sense, if it refers to a single 
object or individual, it must, in French, be preceded by tm, 
tme, and if to several, by the preposition de, when placed 
before the noun, and des, if placed after it ; as, 

Such a man is not calculated to Un tel homme n'est pas fait pour 

command respect. commander le respect. 

Such men are not calculated to be De tels hommes ne se font point 

loved. aimer. 

Such horses as yours cannot run Des chevaux tels que les votres ne 

very fast. peuvent courir tres vite. 

895. Plusieurs. 

Several, many. 

Plusieurs is either a pronoun or an adjective ; it is mas- 
culine or feminine, and always plural. 

When a pronoun, plusieurs is only said of persons, and 

designates an indefinite number of them ; 

Many are deceived by attempting to Plusieurs sont trompes en essayant 
deceive others. de tromper les autres. 

896. Plusieurs, as an adjective, relates to persons and 

things ; as, 

Many philosophers have been de- Plusieurs philosophes se sont trom- 
ceived upon the nature of the soul. pes sur la nature de 1'ame. 

897. Tout. 
All, every, every thing. 

Tout is sometimes a pronoun and sometimes an adjective, 
and takes both gender and number in this last qualification. 

898. Tout, as a pronoun, is always masculine and singular, 
and signifies every thing ; as, 

Every thing in our heart ought to Tout doit dans notre cceur ceder a. 

yield to justice. l'equite. 

He laughs at every thing. II rit de tout. 

899. This pronoun, used as the direct object of a verb, is 
placed after it in simple tenses, and, in compound tenses, be- 
tween the auxiliary and past participle ; as, 

He confesses all. II avoue tout. 

He has confessed every thing. II a tout avoue. 

900. But when an indirect object, it is always placed after 
the verb, either in simple or compound tenses ; as, 



PRONOUN. 217 

He thinks of every thing. U pense a tout. 

He has thought of every thing. II a pense a lout. 

The same rule is observed in the infinitive mood. 

901. Tout, as an adjective, has two different meanings ; it 
expresses either the generality or the whole extent of a thing ; 
or it means every. In the first acceptation, it requires the arti- 
cle before the noun which it qualifies ; as, 

We must all die. Tout le monde meurt. 

All the horses have been taken for Tous les chevaux ont ete pris pour 
the army. Parmee. 

902. In the other meaning, the article is not used before the 
noun which immediately follows the adjective ; as, 

Every man ought to sacrifice his life Tout homme doit sacrifier sa vie pour 
for his country. son pays. 

When used for every, tout is always placed in the singular. 

903. In the first signification, tout may accompany not only 
the adjective possessive pronouns, but even the following : 
nous, vous, eux, ce, celui, ceci, cela, celui-ci, celui-la, and le. 

904. With the adjective pronouns, tout is always placed 
first ; as, 

All my friends, all thy brothers, and Tous mes amis, tous tes freres, et 
all his family were at my nuptials. toute sa famille etaient a mon ma- 
nage. 

905. Tout always follows nous, vous, and eux ; as, 

All of us, all of you, all of them. Nous tous, vous tous, eux tous. 

906. Tout precedes the demonstrative pronouns ce celui, ce- 
ci, cela, celui-ci, and celui-la ; as, 

All that I say is true. Tout ce que je dis est vrai. 

All those who were at the party Tous ceux qui etaient au bal etaient 

were my friends. mes amis. 

I do not like all this, nor all that. Je n'aime ni tout ceci, ni tout cela. 

Look at those books, and give me Regardez ces livres et donnez-moi 

all these and all those. tous ceux-ci et tous ceux-la. 

907. With le, la, and les, as objective pronouns, tout follows 
the verb which governs them, in simple tenses, and, in com- 
pound ones, is placed between the auxiliary and past participle, 
as follows : 

I like them all. Je les trouve tous bons. 

I have experienced them all. Je les ai tous dprouves. 

19 



21S FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

908. Tout is sometimes used adverbially; its signification then 

is merely expletive, and it takes neither gender or number ; as, 

He speaks aloud. II parle tout haut. 

He told her coldly that he did not II lui dit tout froidement qu'il ne 1'ai- 
love her. moit pas. 

909. Sometimes tout signifies although very, quoique-tres ; 
entirely, entierement ; or however, quelque. Then it is sub- 
ject to some particular rules. 

910. Rule I. Tout, employed for any of the three above 
words, remains unchanged before a masculine adjective ; as, 

Horses of that color are generally Les chevaux de ce poil sont gene- 
very good or very bad. ralement tout bons on tout mau- 

vais. 

Children, however amiable they Les enfants, tout aimdbles qu'ils sont, 

may be, have always a great ne laissent pas d'avoir bien des 

many faults. defauts. 

Although much frightened, they Tout effrayes qu'ils etaient, ils se 

made a good defence. defendirent bien. 

911. Rule II. Tout, employed instead of the same three 
words, and placed before a feminine adjective beginning with a 
vowel or an h mute, takes neither gender nor number ; as, 

These fruits are entirely different Ces fruits la sont tout autres que les 

from the others. premiers. 

Virtue, however strict it may be, is La vertu, tout austere qu'elle est, fait 

a source of true pleasure. gouter de vrais plaisirs. 

These engravings, although very in- Ces gravures, tout interessantes qu* 

teresting, do not always please. elles sont, ne laissent pas d'en- 

nuyer a la longue. 

912. But tout takes both number and gender before a femi- 
nine adjective beginning with a consonant or an h aspirated ; as, 

They were much surprised to see Elles furent toutes surprises de nous 

us. voir. 

That is an empty head. C'est une tete toute vide. 

Although very wise and learned, Toutes sages et toutes savantes qu' 

their company is very irksome. elles sont, leur societe est tres 

ennuyeuse. 

These young ladies, however pretty Ces demoiselles, toutes jolies qu'elles 

they may be, are not pleasing at all. sont, ne sont nullement aimables. 

913. Rule III. Tout, used for one of the three above words, 

changes neither gender nor number before a feminine adjective 

beginning with a consonant, when the adjective is immediately 

preceded by an adverb ; it also remains unchanged before an 

adverb ; as, 

These young ladies are as pretty as Ces demoiselles sont tout aussi jolies 

you. que vous. 

She is just like you. Elle est tout comme vous. 

This river flows softly. Cette riviere coule tout doucement. 



PRONOUN. 219 



Of Indefinite Pronouns followed by Que. 

914. These pronouns are the following : 

Qui que (ce soit), whoever (it may be). 

Quoi que (ce soit), whatever (it may be). 

Quelque, whoever, whatever. 

Quelque que, whatever, however. 

Tel que, such as. 

Tout que, however. 

915. Qui que ; Qui que ce soit. 

Whoever, whoever it may be. 

Qui que and qui que ce soit signify whoever ', whoever it may 
be, are always singular and masculine, and only said of per- 
sons. 

They are used with or without a negation. 

Without a negation, they mean, as we have said, whoever, 
whatever person it may be, and govern the next verb in the 
subjunctive mood ; as, 

Whoever may call, say that I am Qui que ce soit qui vienne, dites que 

engaged. je suis occupe. 

Whomever we speak to, we must be A qui que ce soit que nous parlions, 

polite. nous devons etre polis. 

Whoever you maybe, I do not wish Qui que vous soyez, je ne desire pas 

to associate with you. me lier avec vous. 

916. The result of these examples is, that when qui que ce 
soit is a nominative, it is followed by the relative qui, and when 
objective, by que ; thus, when nominative, the words que ce 
soit must follow the first qui, to avoid the immediate repetition 
of the same word qui ; but, when objective, these words, que 
ce soit, may be omitted, as may be seen in the last example. 

917. Accompanied by a negation, qui que ce soit signifies 
personne, any body, and the verb following is placed in the in- 
dicative mood ; as, 

We ought never to slander any On ne doit jamais mal parler de qui 

body. que ce soit. 

Nobody has prejudiced me against Qui que ce soit ne m'a prevenu con- 

you. tre vous. 

918. Quoi que (ce soit). 
Whatever, whatever it may be. 
Quoi que and quoi que ce soit signify whatever and whatever 



220 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

it may be ; they are always singular, masculine, and only said 
of things. They are used with or without a negation. 

Without a negation, they mean whatever it may be, and 
govern the next verb in the subjunctive mood ; as, 

Whatever he is doing, he leaves it Quoi que ce soit quHl fasse, il quitte 

at once when his duty calls him sur le champ, quand son devoir 

out. l'appelle. 

Whatever he may do, he will never Quoi qu'il fasse il ne reussira ja- 

succeed. mais. 

919. These pronouns being used only in the objective case, 
are never followed by qui. 

With a negation, they signify nothing, rien> and are followed 
by the indicative ; as, 

Without proper care we cannot sue- Sans une application convenable 
ceed in any thing. nous ne pouvons reussir en quoi 

que ce soit. 

920. Remark. Although quoi que seems to have nearly the 
same signification as quoi que ce soit que, its similarity with 
quoique, although, both in meaning and writing, requires, for 
the sake of clearness, that it should be rendered by quelque 
chose que, which conveys the same meaning and destroys the 
ambiguity ; thus, in the above example, it would have been 
better to write : 

Quelque chose qu'il fasse, &c. 

921. Quelque. 

Whoever, whatever. 

Quel que signifies whoever may be the who, or what- 
ever may be the that, quelque soit le qui. It is 

said of persons and things, and takes both number and gender ; 
it is used only as a nominative, and requires the verb which 
follows in the subjunctive mood. 

922. This pronoun is never followed by a noun or an adjec- 
tive, but always by a verb, and agrees with the noun which it 
represents ; as, 

Criminals ought to be punished, Les criminels doivent 6tre punis quels 

whoever they may be. quails puissent etre. 

Whatever may be the offers of an Quelles que soient les ojfres d'un en- 
enemy, we must always mistrust nemi, on doit toujours s'en defier. 
them. 



PRONOUN. 221 

923. Quelque que. 

Whatever, whoever. 

Quelque que has two different significations ; if joined to a 

noun, it signifies quelque soit le qui, whoever may be 

the who, or that ; it takes the number of the noun which 

follows, because it is a mere adjective ; as, 

Whatever may be the rank that you Quelque rang que vous occupiez. 

occupy. 
Whatever riches you may possess. Quelques richesses que vous posse- 

diez. 

924. This rule is also applied to the case where the noun is 
immediately preceded by an adjective ; as, 

Whatever may be the great deeds Quelques belles actions qu'il fasse ; 
which he accomplishes ; 

because the addition of the adjective does not change the func- 
tions of quelque, which then modifies the noun thus qualified. 

925. But when joined to an adjective not immediately fol- 
lowed by its noun, to a past participle, or to an adverb imply- 
ing qualification, it then signifies quoique, however, and a quel- 
que point que, whatever ; its nature changes, and from an ad- 
jective it becomes an adverb, and, consequently, remains invari- 
able ; as, 

However powerful they may be. Quelque puissants qu'ils soient. 

However respected you may be. Quelque considiris que vous soyez. 

However skilfully they attempt to Quelqu 'adroitement qu'ils s'y pren- 
do it. nent. 

926. This pronoun, whatever may be the class to which it 
belongs, governs the next verb in the subjunctive. 

The use of this pronoun is a great trouble to foreigners, who 
ought to apply themselves to distinguish, with the help of the 
preceding rules, what is the class to which belongs the word 
they wish to make use of. 

927. Tel qur. 
Such as. 
Tel que is employed in making comparisons ; as, 

We fear to see ourselves as we are, On craint de se voir tel ?w'on est, 
because we are not as we ought parcequ'on est pas tel qu'on de- 
to be. -vrait etre. 

19* 



222 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

It would be a fault to use quel que instead of tel que. 

928. Tout que. 

We have already said all that relates to this pronoun. 

Telque and toutque govern the indicative mood, because the 
sentences in which they are used, signify a fact of a positive 
character, and do not admit of doubt, wish, fear, &c 

Foreigners, not being sufficiently acquainted with the genius 
of our language, should be put on their guard, on account of 
these pronouns, because, being followed by que, they would be 
induced to apply the subjunctive to the verb following. 



OF THE VERB, 



929. The verb is the most important of all the parts of speech; 
it enters into the formation of all sentences, to unite our thoughts 
together, to modify them, and show if they refer to the present, 
past, or future time ; its functions consist in expressing actions, 
feelings, and situations. Unique by the extent of its qualities, 
this word is the soul and spirit of our discourse, and it is only 
through its aid that we may express what agreement or disa- 
greement there is between the persons and objects which we 
compare together. 

This part of speech is emphatically called verb, from the 
Latin word verbum. Without this it is impossible to express an 
idea ; and if we suppress it sometimes, for the sake of rapidity 
in style, it is only because the mind may easily supply it ; but 
it should always be found in the grammatical analysis. 

There are many definitions of the verb, but the clearest and 
most complete is that given by the Academy, as follows : 

930. " The verb is a part of speech which expresses either 
an action performed or felt by the nominative or subject, or 
simply the situation or the quality of the subject, and which is 
conjugated with the assistance of persons, numbers, tenses, and 
moods." 



VERB. 223 

931. There is, in fact, but one single verb, to be, Ure, be- 
cause it is the only one which expresses affirmation ; without it, 
there is no sentence ; words will only present to the mind un- 
connected ideas, and society would be deprived of the means 
of correspondence among its members ; but this only verb is 
not always to be found in its simple and natural form. The 
desire to shorten sentences induced man to invent words con- 
taining in themselves the verb and the quality of the object 
spoken. Hence these words, aimer, hair, raisonner, to love, 
to hate, to reason, have properly been called verbs, because 
they hold that verb in their signification ; for he loves, il aime, 
means he is loving, il est aimant ; je hais, 1 hate, means I am 
hating, je suis ha'issant, &c. These verbs are consequently 
but abbreviated expressions, composed of two elements, the 
verb itself and the quality which modifies it. 

932. In French, as well as in English, it is always easy to 
recognise a verb from another part of speech by the tempora- 
ry addition of the personal pronouns nominative, je, tu, il, &c. ; 
in this sentence, for instance : 

A judgment according to law. Un jugement conforme aux lois. 

the word conforme is an adjective, because it qualifies juge- 
ment, and does not permit any of the pronouns je, tu, il, &c. 
to be placed before it ; but in the following : 

An honest man always suits his L'honnete homme conforme tou- 
conduct to his duty and the laws jours sa conduite a ses devoirs et 
of his country. aux lois de son pays. 

The word conforme is a verb, because with the pronouns je, 
tu, il, &c. it presents to the mind an idea able to satisfy it. 

933. Each verb expresses, then, the idea of existence, real 
or intellectual, and that of a determinate modification attached 
to existence, and as our mind may attribute this combination 
either to a single object or to several, to the person who 
speaks, to that who is spoken to, or who is spoken of, the 
verbs must have modifications in order to express these differ- 
ent views of the mind ; thus the following sentences ; 

I am ploughing, thou art, he or she Je laboure, tu laboures, il ou e]\e 
is, we are, you are, they are laboure, nous labourons, vous la- 
ploughing, bourez, ils ou elles labourent, 



224 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

express all, the existence attached to the idea of ploughing, 
but the first, ^'e laboure^ shows that the idea of existence, thus 
modified, refers to a single person, and that this person is my- 
self; the second, tu laboures, means that the same idea, with 
the same modification, is addressed to the person spoken to, 
&c. 

934. Since the only verb to be, etre, being modified ac- 
cording to the wants of the mind, expresses sufficiently all its 
ideas, why is it, then, that we have invented so many words 
which contain in themselves the verb and its modifications ? 
Let us attempt, as an answer to this question, to construct a 
sentence without the help of these compound words, and see 
how our ear and taste would be pleased ; as, 



L'ambition est une passion qui 
ileve l'homme ou le digrade, qui 
en fait un heros ou le rend capa- 
ble des plus grands crimes. 



Ambition is a passion which raises 
man or degrades him, makes 



L'ambition est une passion qui est } , • o , „ *» „ VTW «. ' u;™ +r , 
,, . „, r , , j/ him a hero or exposes nim to 

olet^/ynt 7 hr»mmo rm pot IP rfpa-M- . * 



elevant l'homme, ou est le digra- 
dant, qui est faisant de lui un he- 
ros ou est le rendant capable des 
plus grands crimes. 



the greatest crimes. 



Without any further remarks, it is evident, that if the first sen- 
tence is elegant and pleases the ear, the other is shocking by 
the repetition of the same sound, ant\ and the dullness which 
reigns in the arrangement of the words. 



OF NUMBERS AND PERSONS IN THE VERBS. 

935. The verb, having to express the modified existence 
of its subject, should receive alterations corresponding to the 
different situations in which the subject is to be found. 

936. We then distinguish in a verb, the numbers, that is to 
say, the singular, when the action, expressed by the verb, is 
performed by a single person ; as, 

This child is reading. Cet enfant lit. 

and the plural, when that action is performed by several per- 
sons ; as, 



VERB. 225 

These children are reading. Ces enfants lisent. 

937. By the word personne, applied to verbs, we understand 
the modifications which it receives as referring to one who 
speaks, one who is spoken to, or is spoken of; this modifica- 
tion is felt both by the nominative or subject of the verb, and 
the verb itself. The subject is either a noun or a pronoun. 
When a pronoun, this pronoun, by its alterations, indicates the 
person of the verb, and the verb, by its termination, shows 
under the control of what pronoun it is. The subject, when a 
noun, always governs the third person. 

938. We say of a verb that it is in the first person, when 
the action expressed by the verb is performed by the person 
who speaks, as, Ising,je chante ; we sing, nous chantons. 

939. The verb is in the second person, when it is the per- 
son spoken to who performs the action ; as, 

Thou singest, tu chantes ; you sing, vous chantez. 

940. The verb is in the third person, when it is the person 
spoken of who performs the action ; as, 

He or she sings, il ou elle chante ; they sing, Us ou elles chantent. 

941. In French as well as in English, although we speak 
only to one person, politeness requires that we employ the 
second person plural instead of that of the singular ; thus we 
say, 

Sir, you write very well. Monsieur, vous e'crivez (and not tu 

tens) fort bien. 

942. In passive and neuter verbs, conjugated with to be, of 
which we shall soon speak, when vous is used instead of tu, the 
verb to be takes the plural, but not the word which modifies 
that verb : thus we say ; 

Madam, you are loved. Madame vous ties aimee, (and not aimees.) 

although vous and etes are in the plural. 



226 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



OF THE TENSES OF THE VERB. 

943. We have said that a verb expresses the idea of the 
existence of a subject, modified according to the direction of 
the mind ; that is to say, that a verb expresses an action or a 
situation. 

But this action or situation may have taken place in the past, 
or may be taking place at the time we speak, or may take place 
in the future. 

944. There are, then, new accessory ideas to be added to 
those of number and persons, and to that of the principal idea 
of the modified existence expressed generally by the verb. 

945. Since, as we have seen, the termination changes in the 
verb, to express, by this material alteration the modification of 
the subject, in regard to persons and number, it ought to change 
also to characterize these new accessory ideas relating to dif- 
ferent periods of time ; thus, 

I did plough yesterday, Je labourai hier, 

expresses an action which is past at the time I speak. 

I am ploughing now, Je laboure main tenant, 

expresses an action which takes place at the time I speak. 

I shall be ploughing to-morrow, Je labourerai demain, 

expresses an idea in the future, which has not been accom- 
plished yet, but shall be. 

These three expressions, Je labourai, je laboure, je la- 
bourerai, which all belong to the same primitive idea of exist- 
ence, modified by the idea of ploughing, and stand modified in 
the same manner in regard to the accessory idea of number 
and persons, being all in the first person singular, have re- 
ceived different terminations to express, besides, the new modi- 
fications of times ; and it is by the difference in these termina- 
tions, that one expresses the present, another the past, and the 
last the future. 

946. These different forms are called tenses, in the verbs, 
because they express the relations existing between the action 



VERB. 227 

represented by the verb, and the different periods during 
which this action might have taken place. 

Each verb has, then, three distinct forms. 

One to express an action in the present ; 

One to express an action in the past ; 

One to express an action in the future. 

We shall follow this order in the examination of tenses, so 
as not to differ with the general arrangements of most gramma- 
rians, although it would be more rational to begin with the 
past. 



Of the Present. 

947. There is, and there can be, but one way to conceive 
the idea of the Present. As soon as a fact has taken place, it 
belongs entirely to the past, and if it has not yet taken place, 
it belongs to the future ; a fact cannot, then, be more or less 
present, and for this reason we have but one way to express it ; 

I am ploughing, I am suffering. Je laboure, je souffre. 

948. The actuality of an action, or situation, does not con- 
sist in its being instantaneous, as taking place in a time which 
is metaphysically indivisible ; it depends upon what is taken as 
a unity of time ; thus we say, very properly, 

I study the grammar, J'etudie la grammaire, 

although we do not pretend to express, that the study of the 
grammar takes place at the moment the person speaks, but 
that the study of the grammar is his habitual occupation, and 
will remain such until he has learned it. 

949. The measure of time which constitutes the present is, 
then, relative to what is spoken of, and may be of a longer or 
shorter duration. 

When we say, 

He sows some wheat this year, and II seme du ble cette annee, et l'an- 
the next he will sow some oats, nee prochaine il semera de l'a- 

voine, 

we do not pretend to express that he is sowing wheat during 
the whole year, but he has sown wheat when he had to do it. 



228 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

950. We also employ the present to express the habitual 
action or situation of the subject ; as, 

He loves music, he fights like a lion, II aime la musique, il se bat comme 
he feels the misfortunes of his un lion, il souffre des malheurs de 
country. sa patrie. 

Which does not signify, that he loves music, or fights, or 
feels, at the moment spoken of, but that his habitual and 
natural dispositions are such as is expressed by the verbs. 

951. The present is, sometimes, expressed under the form 
of the imperfect ; as when we say to a person we meet in the 
street, 

I was going to see you. J ? allois vous voir. 

Or to some one who enters the room, 

I was thinking of you this moment. Je m'occupais de vous dans ce mo- 
ment. 

This form of the present is owing to the circumstances of 
the fact ; for when I say, J'allois chez vous, I express that I 
was in the act of going when I met you ; the action of going 
to your house is, then, in part, past at the time I speak, and 
simultaneous with our encounter, and it is only because this 
encounter is itself present that f allots expresses the present on 
this occasion. The same mode of reasoning is applicable to 
all phrases of similar construction. 

952. Sometimes, also, we use the present, in speaking of 
facts utterly past, but it is then because we bring our mind 
back to the time when the fact took place, as if we were 
present at the action ; it is a figure allowed by the laws of the 
language, which often gives to the style more rapidity, ele- 
gance, and animation. 



Of the Imperfect. 

953. One of the greatest difficulties of the French language, 
for English scholars, consists in distinguishing the difference 
existing between this tense and the preterite definite ; a differ- 
ence which does not exist in their language, or which, at least, 



VERB. 229 

there is no particular manner of representing by words ; there- 
fore we shall enter into such details as are necessary not to 
leave a doubt about the proper use of these two tenses. 

954. The imperfect is used to express a past action in 
several different points of view, which we shall examine sepa- 
rately. 

When I say, 

I was ploughing when your father Je labourais quand votre pere ar- 
came, riva, 

the act of ploughing is, in reality, past at the time when I 
speak, but it was present at the time when the father came ; 
it was simultaneous with this last fact. By this tense, then, we 
express a past in regard to the time when we speak, and a pres- 
ent in regard to the time we speak of; and for this reason, of 
a mixture of the present with the past, this form of the verb 
has been called imperfect. Therefore we shall lay down this 
first rule ; 

955. 1st. The imperfect is used to express an action which 
was taking place at the same time that another action took 
place. 

When we say, 

During your absence I went (I used Pendant votre absence fallals a. la 

to go) to the post-office every day, poste tous les jours, 

When I was in Washington I went Quand ^etais a Washington, '^allais 

(I used to go) to Congress every au Congres tous les jours, 
day, 

in the first of these two sentences the verb expresses an ac- 
tion often repeated, a habit of life ; in the second, the verb 
fetais expresses a situation of some duration, and fallals a 
habit ; in both cases the imperfect should be used to convey 
to the mind the idea of the speaker ; thus we lay down as a 
rule, 

956. 2d. When we wish to express an action in the past as 
being habitually done, or a fact which implies the idea of 
duration, the imperfect should be used to convey these ideas 
to the mind of the hearer. 

When we say, 

Napoleon was a great man, but he Napoleon etait un grand homme, 
was too much addicted to war, mais il aimait trop la guerre, 

20 



230 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

we express in this sentence neither a fact, having taken place 
at the same time with another, nor a habit or situation, but a 
qualification, a disposition of the mind, of the soul, and the im- 
perfect is still used in cases of the kind ; hence the following 
rule ; 

957. 3d. When we wish to express a situation of the mind, 
or natural feelings and dispositions, in a time which is passed, 
the imperfect should be used. 

When we say, 

My father was a hundred years old Mon pere avait cent ans quand il 
when he died, mourut, 

we express a fact which seems at once definite, but which, in 
reality, does not signify that my father had lived exactly ninety- 
nine years, and three hundred and sixty-five days, but that he 
had, at least, lived a hundred years, without having reached his 
hundred and first year, and that such was about his age when 
he died. 
My father was born in England, Mon pere ttait ne en Angleterre, 

signifies that my father is no more at the time I speak ; if he 
were still living, the present should be used instead of the im- 
perfect ; thus, 

958. 4th. When we speak of the age or the birth of a 
person who is no more, the imperfect should be used ; as well 
as when we speak of the habitual occupations of his life, or of 
his natural disposition. 

959. 5th. When, in English, the signs of the conditional, 
would, should, might, ought, are employed with a verb, and 
preceded by if, si, signifying, suppose that, the imperfect is 
used in French, instead of the conditional ; as, 

If you would come to-morrow I Si vous veniez demain, je vous 

would pay you. payerais. 

If I should go into the country to- Si ^allais a la campagne demain, 

morrow I should want your ser- j'aurais besoin de vos services. 

vices. 

960. 6th. The imperfect may be used when we speak of 
an event, the effect of which was continued, although it oc- 
curred in a time definitely past, as yesterday ; 

When did you lose your purse ? I Quand avez-vo us perdu votre bourse? 
lost it this morning ; I had it last Je I'ai perdue ce matin ; je Vavais 
night. hier au soir. 



VERB. 231 

The action expressed by the verb avoir, although past 
definitely, yesterday, implies duration, since the fact of having 
the purse yesterday was continued until this morning, when I 
lost it, and consequently requires the imperfect. 

We shall enter into more minute details upon this tense and 
the following, in our work on translation. 



Of the Preterite Definite. 

961. The preterite definite is the perfect of the Latin ; it 
is used in speaking of an action or a fact which took place at 
a time entirely past, of which nothing remains which is speci- 
fied in the sentence, or clearly understood, and which may 
always be discovered by the thread of events in the relation. 

The time, to be entirely and definitely past, so as to re- 
quire the preterite definite, must be such as to show clearly 
that what has been taken as the unit of time is completely 
elapsed ; whether this unit of time is a day, a week, a month, 
a year, an age, &c. 

This tense is not generally used in conversation, but is 
usually found in relating historical events, and for this cause is 
called, by some grammarians, the historical preterite. 

I went to church last Sunday. J'allai a 1'eglise Dimanche dernier. 

I received yesterday, last week, last Je re^us des nouvelles de nos amis, 

month, last year, some news from hier, la semaine dernitre, le mois 

our friends. dernier, Vannie derniere. 

Napoleon was defeated at Waterloo. Napoleon fut vaincu a Waterloo. 

Caesar came, saw, and conquered. Cesar vint, vit, et vainquit. 

The difference between this preterite and the imperfect may 
be nearly explained, by stating, that generally the imperfect 
corresponds to the English past, expressed by the verb to be, 
followed by the present participle ; or when the verb may be 
preceded by the verb to use, as, he used to read, he used to be 
honest, instead of he read, he was honest, &c. ; whereas the 
preterite corresponds to the past, expressed by the infinitive, 
preceded by did. This is a mere indication, not absolutely 
correct, but near enough to the truth to help pupils until they 
have accustomed their minds to understand the whole meaning 
and the exact difference of the two tenses. 



222 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



Of the Preterite Indefinite. 

962. This preterite is used to express that an action or a 
fact has taken place, but without reference to any particular 
time, or period of time, and without intimating whether the ac- 
tion or fact spoken of is entirely past or not. There is, in fine, 
in the idea conveyed by this preterite, something vague and in- 
definite which completely distinguishes it from the preceding 
tense ; when I say, 

I have ploughed my field this morn- J'ai laboure mon champ ce matin, 

the act of ploughing is certainly in the past, as regards the time 
when I speak, but it took place during the morning, which is 
a part of the day, which day is not over. This last circum- 
stance is characterized in the language by using the preterite 
indefinite ; according to this principle we should say, 

He has worked much this week, [II a beaucoup travaille cette seniaine, 
and he worked much yesterday, J et 

or the day before yesterday, ) II travailla beaucoup hier ou avani 

l_ hier ; 

because, the week not being entirely past, the preterite definite 

could not be used ; whereas, it should be employed in the last 

part of the sentence, the day spoken of being entirely over, 

though the week is not. According to the same principle, we 

should say, 

My pupils have studied well this Mes elevesont Men etudid cette ann6e 9 
year, and they did study well last et ils etudikrent bien le mois der- 
month ; nier ; 

using the preterite indefinite first, because the year is not past, 

and the preterite definite afterwards, because the month is 

over. 

963. We see, then, that the choice to be made between 
these two tenses depends upon what is taken as a unit to 
measure the time, whether a day, a week, a month, or a year ; 
if that unit of time be over, the preterite definite ought to be 
used ; if not entirely done, then the preterite indefinite ; but it 
must be observed, that this unit of time can never be less 
than twenty-four hours. 

964. The preterite indefinite is also used when we wish to 



VERB. 233 

express an action or a situation which is past, without fixing 
the time in a precise manner, or when we speak of a fact or 
action which has usually taken place ; thus, we say, 

He has read much, studied much ; II a beaucoup lu, beaucoup etudii ; 

he has benefited himself by his il a profitl de ses lectures ; il a 

reading; he has reflected all his riflidii to ute la vie, 
life, 

because, in all these propositions, we wish to express but a 
habit, or a past action, without any precise reference to the 
time when it took place. It seems that, in cases like these, 
the time taken as the unit is the life of the person spoken of, 
and as this life is not over, according to the preceding rules, 
this preterite is the tense which should express it. 

This explanation conforms so much to the principles already 
explained, that, if we spoke of a person who is no more, we 
should use the preterite definite or the pluperfect, and say, 

II hit beaucoup, ilprojita de ses lectures, 
or 11 avait beaucoup lu ; il avait beaucoup profile, &c. ; 

because then the unit of time, which is life, would be entire- 
ly over. 

Although the distinction, thus established between these two 
preterites ought to be strictly observed in the language, for- 
eigners might be deceived by hearing Frenchmen using them 
indifferently one for the other. The only conclusion to be de- 
rived from this remark is, that a great many of my country- 
men do not speak their own language properly ; but their ex- 
ample ought not to be followed. 



Of the Pluperfect. 

965. The pluperfect is used to express that a fact has taken 
place before another fact which is also past, without reference 
to the length of time elapsed between the two ; the fact ex- 
pressed by this tense is then doubly past, once in regard to 
the time when it is mentioned, and once as to the event which 
it has preceded ; which makes it more than past, and from 
20* 



234 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

which originated its name of the Pluperfect^ which means past 
more than perfectly past , or past twice ; as, 

I had breakfasted when you came J'avais dijeuni quand vous vintes 
to my house. chez moi. 

The breakfast is done, and it was done before you came, 
hence the pluperfect. 



Preterite Anterior. 

966. We have said, speaking of the pluperfect, that it ex- 
pressed that a fact had taken place before another fact which is 
also past, without reference to the time elapsed between the 
two facts ; but, if we wish to establish a more intimate rela- 
tion between these two facts, so as to show that one took 
place immediately before the other, thus showing the time in a 
definite manner, then we make the first fact a preterite definite, 
and the idea will be expressed by a preterite anterior to an- 
other preterite ; hence the name of this tense. In this sen- 
tence : 

I had ploughed my field before my Teus lahouri mon champ avant que 
neighbour began his. mon voisin commengdt le sien. 

we mean to say, 

I had just done ploughing my field, when my neighbour began his ; 

which conforms to the definition stated above. The use of the 
pluperfect, in a case like this, would not convey the meaning 
of the speaker, who then would only say, as a matter of fact, 
that he had done ploughing his field before the other began, but 
at any period before, which is not what he had in mind. 



Of other ways of expressing the Past. 

967. We sometimes, in order to be more precise, use ex- 
pressions of a peculiar nature which belong to the idiom of the 
language. 

For instance, to express that a fact has just taken place, in- 



VERB. 235 

stead of making a phrase which would require the use of sev- 
eral words, the two verbs, venir, to come, and sortir, to go 
out, are elegantly used ; as, 

I have just done reading this work. Je mens de finir la lecture de cet 

ouvrage. 
I have just spoken to him about this Je sors de lui parler de cette affaire. 
affair. (Not much used.) 

These sorts of preterite express the past which is the near- 
est to the present. 



Of the forms of Verbs which relate to the Past. 

968. We have, then, according to what precedes, five dif- 
ferent ways of expressing past events : 

The Imperfect ; 

The Preterite Definite ; 

The Preterite Indefinite ; 

The Pluperfect ; 

The Preterite Anterior ; 

without mentioning the manner of expressing a fact just past 
with the verbs venir and sortir. 

With these forms, we may indicate with precision all that 
is connected with the past, so as to satisfy the mind of both 
the speaker and hearer. 



Of the Future. 

969. The future is, as we have already said, a tense which 
expresses that an action or a fact has not yet taken place, but 
will or shall take place. 

This action or fact in the future may be understood in two 
different manners ; when I say, 

I shall plough my field, Je labour erai mon champ, 

I express, in a manner simple and absolute, an action which I 
intend to perform in the future, without referring to any partic- 
ular time. This form remains the same, whatever may be the 



236 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

epoch in the future when the action shall be performed ; for I 
may say, with the same propriety, 

I shall plough in an hoar, this eve- Je labourerai, dans une heure, ce 
ning, to-morrow, in a week, in a soir, demain, dans une semaine, 
month, in a year, in an age. dans un mois, dans un an, dans 

un siecle. 

970. This form is called Future Present, Simple, or Abso- 
lute. Present, because it is not mixed with any idea connected 
with the past. Simple, because it is expressed without the 
assistance of any of the auxiliary verbs. Absolute, because it 
expresses an action or situation in the future in an absolute 
manner, without reference to any particular time in that future. 

Sometimes the form of the present is used to express a fu- 
ture, as in this sentence : 

I start to-morrow at eight o'clock. Je pars demain a huit heures. 

But it is evident, that the idea of the future is not rendered by 
the present je pars, but by the addition of the adverb demain ; 
and, if we say je pars, and not je partirai, it is probably be- 
cause we wish to express, that the person who speaks has posi- 
tively made up his mind to go, in a manner as positive and 
sure as if he had to go right away, the very minute he speaks ; 
he wishes to express how certain, how positively sure he is to 
start the next day. 



Of the Future Past, or Anterior. 

971. The other form of expressing a future is the following : 

I shall have ploughed my field when J'aurai laboure mon champ quand 
you come back. vous revindrez. 

In this case, we express an action which is not done yet, and 
consequently future in regard to the moment we speak, but 
which shall be done and past when another fact takes place. 

This form, then, expresses altogether a future as to the time 
when we speak, and a past as to another action in the future. 
This double consideration of a future joined to a past has caused 
this tense to be called Future Past ; and we see well enough 
how these two qualifications do not imply contradiction. 



VERB. 237 

It is also called a Composed or Compound Future, because 
the use of this tense requires the assistance of the auxiliary 
verb to have. 

The two forms of the future are found in the following verses 
of La Fontaine : 

When my time comes to go among the dead, 

I shall have lived without cares, and died without remorse. 

Quand le moment viendra d'aller trouver les morts, 
faurai vicu sans soins, et mourrai sans remords. 



972. Thus, we have now shown eight different forms in 
the verbs, eight tenses, to express the different periods of time 
when an action may take place. We must not forget that all 
these forms express the same fundamental idea of existence 
modified by the particular meaning of its complement, the act 
of ploughing ; that all the words referring to this idea, which 
we have analyzed, have the same root, to plough, and their ter- 
mination only varies. When, besides the fundamental idea of 
ploughing, we wish to express an incidental idea of persons, 
number, or time, by these means, each variety in the idea is 
expressed by a sign differing from others, so as to avoid confu- 
sion in transmitting it. 

973. In order to express those tenses, we sometimes em- 
ploy simple forms ; as, 

I am walking, I was reading. Je marche, je lisais. 

Sometimes compound ones ; as, 

I have walked, I had read. J'ai marche, j'avais lu. 

Hence two sorts of tenses ; simple tenses and compound 
tenses. 

Simple tenses are those which are expressed without the as- 
sistance of the auxiliary verbs, to have and to be. 

Compound tenses are those which require the use of the 
auxiliary verbs, to have or to be. 



238 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



OF MOODS. 

974. The word mood is derived from the Latin word modus, 
and signifies manner. 

We understand, then, by moods, different ways of expres- 
sing the existence of a subject, with its attribute ; in other 
words, moods contain different forms assumed by the verb, in 
order to express an affirmation ; there are in French five moods, 
which are ; 

The Indicative ; 

The Conditional ; 

The Imperative ; 

The Subjunctive ; 

The Infinitive. 

975. There are in languages two general kinds of moods ; 
some are personal, some impersonal, 

The personal moods are those where the verb, by its termi- 
nations, agrees with its subject ; there are four of this class : 
The Indicative ; 
The Conditional ; 
The Imperative ; 
The Subjunctive. 

976. The impersonal moods are those in which the verb 
does not change its termination, and has no subject to agree 
with. There is but one mood of this class in French, which 
is the infinitive. 

977. Personal moods are the only ones which may be used 
to express a proposition, since it is only in these moods that 
the verb identifies itself with its subject, and receives modifi- 
cations from it in number and person. 

978. Impersonal moods, on the contrary, cannot be used to 
express a proposition, because they are deprived of the forms 
which would enable them to receive the influence of a subject ; 
they require, to form a proposition, the assistance of another 
verb in a personal mood ; as, 

To revenge the death of a father, Venger la mort d'un pere, 

is not a proposition ; nothing is affirmed or denied by a sub- 



VERB. 239 

ject ; it may be considered, at the most, as the nominative of 
another phrase, with a verb in a personal mood ; as, 

To revenge the death of a father is Venger la mort d'un phre est tou- 
always legitimate. jours legitime. 

The extent of the meaning of what are called moods, and of 
their functions, in enabling the mind to communicate its con- 
ceptions, will be entirely demonstrated by examining each 
mood in its private capacity. 



Of the Indicative Mood. 

979. As the eight forms, which we have already examined, 
have the faculty of expressing an affirmation in a positive man- 
ner, they belong to the same mood, which we might call affir- 
mative ; but as it is generally called indicative, we shall keep 
this denomination, to be better understood by all. 

The indicative mood, then, is that which expresses affirma- 
tion in a positive and absolute manner, and has, for accomplish- 
ing its functions in the language, eight tenses or forms, accord- 
ing to the wants of the mind. These tenses are : 

The Present ; 

The Imperfect ; 

The Preterite Definite ; 

The Preterite Indefinite ; 

The Pluperfect ; 

The Preterite Anterior ; 

The Future Absolute ; 

The Future Past. 
We shall see afterwards that this mood, with the conditional, 
are the only ones which are able to express an opinion, or 
judgment. 



Of the Conditional Mood, 

980. When I say ; 

I should plough if my oxen were in Je tabourerais si mes bceufs etaient 
good order, en bon etat, 

or, 



240 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

I would have ploughed if it had not J'aurais laboure s'il n'avait pas plu, 
rained. or, J'eusse laboure s'il, &c. 

I do not express any longer, as in the indicative mood, that 
I am, have been, or shall be ploughing, in a positive, absolute 
manner, but that the act of ploughing is depending on a condi- 
tion or a supposition ; if my oxen were well, if it had not 
rained. 

The action expressed by the verb is then understood in a 
different manner by the mind ; it is no longer an absolute affir- 
mation, but a conditional one, depending on a supposition. All 
the forms of language which express this condition of the 
mind, produce a new mood, a new manner of thinking, which 
is called conditional. Let us see now what are the different 
forms of this mood. 

981. They are few in number, and ought to be so, because, 
if, when we affirm that a thing shall be, is, or has been, it is 
necessary we should be precise about the time and circumstan- 
ces, this necessity is not so great when the affirmation is only 
conditional, the circle in which the mind operates not being so 
large. 

In the sentence ; 

I would plough if it did not rain, Je labourerais s'il ne pleuvait pas, 

we express that the act of ploughing would be performed now, 
if the rain did not fall now ; the action would then be in the 
present, if something had not happened in the present, which 
prevented me from ploughing ; the mind is then in the present, 
in the act itself, and in the condition attached to it, and on that 
account the tense which expresses that idea is called Condition- 
al Present. But when I say, 

I should have ploughed if it had J'aurais laboure 1 s'il n'avait pas plu, 
not rained, 

982. We express a fact which would have taken place in 
the past, if another fact, also in the past, had not prevented it ; 
this double character of the past, attached to the fact itself, and 
the condition on which it depends, gives to this tense such a 
character as to deserve the name of Conditional Past. This 
tense is applied with equal propriety to the past, in all its mod- 
ifications, for we say, 



VERB. 241 

I should have ploughed this morn- J'aurais laboure ce matin, hier, il y 
ing, yesterday, twenty or a hun- a vingt ans ou il y a cent ans, 
dred years ago, &c. &c. 

or, 

J'eusse laboure ce matin, hier, &c. 

983. If now we wish to express that the act of ploughing 
would have been ended at a certain period, or before a certain 
period, if certain facts had not happened, we ought to employ 
the pluperfect of the conditional, or the preterite anterior ; as, 

I should have done ploughing three J'aurais or j'eusse eu laboure il y a 
months ago if the rain had not trois mois si la pluie ne m'avait 
stopped me. arrete. 

Because the first of these tenses refers to an act which ought to 
have taken place in the past, if another fact which was also in the 
past, had not taken place, which is the character of the plu- 
perfect ; and the second to a fact which should have immediate- 
ly taken place before another, if the other had not happened, 
which is the character of the preterite anterior. 

984. The conditional affirmation is, then, the distinct charac- 
teristic of every form of the conditional mood ; sometimes, it is 
true, the condition is not expressed, but it is always under- 
stood. In this sentence, for instance ; 

One would never believe that he On ne croirait jamais que ce futla 
was the same person, meme personne, 

the condition is not expressed but understood, and may be 
easily supplied ; as, 

tie ««« - ii -i i™ir „* u- o^ C O" ne croirait jamais que ce futla 
(It one would only look at his an- > . J . ,, ^ , 

pearance V i meme personne, si Ton s'en tenait 

,, t aux apparences. 

The forms proper to the conditional are these : 
The Conditional Present ; 
The Conditional Past ; 
The Pluperfect of the Conditional ; 
The Preterite Anterior of the Conditional. 
However, the grammarians do not consider these two last 
forms of the conditional as constituting an effectual part of this 
mood, and they do not appear in the conjugation of verbs. 



21 



242 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



Of the Imperative Mood. 

985. Sometimes we do not affirm positively, nor condition- 
ally, but we order, we request the subject to perform the act, 
or to place himself in the situation, expressed by the verb. 
This new mode of considering the effect of the verb is 
called imperative, and is expressed by the imperative mood, 
from the Latin imperare, which signifies to order, to command. 

Thus the command, or positive demand, is the qualification, 
the characteristic, which constitutes the form of the imperative. 
These forms are only two in number. 

986. We may order the action, expressed by the verb, to 
take place immediately ; as, 

Laboure, Plough. 

Qu'il laboure, Let him plough. 

Labourons, Let us plough. 

Labourez, Plough. 

Qu'ils labourent, Let them plough. 

And this form, relating to the time present, is necessarily a pres- 
ent ; or it expresses a fact or situation which should always 
be such at any period of our life, and is still a present ; as, 

Let us be always just. Soyons toujours justes. 

Let us always be on our guard. Soyons toujours sur nos gardes. 

987. But if we wish the action of the verb to be performed 
before a certain time or fact which we specify ; as, 

Have ploughed this field before my Ayez laboure ce champ avant mon 
return, retour, 

we thus express a wish or order which has to be performed 
or accomplished at a future period, and this form belongs to 
the future ; but as it signifies also that this act should be passed 
before another (my return), this future would be the future 
past of the imperative. 

9S8. However, this last tense of the imperative mood is 
not considered by grammarians as an indispensable accessory 
of the imperative, and does not appear in the conjugation of 
verbs. We mention it here only as a natural consequence of 
an operation of the mind which may render its use necessary. 



VERB. 243 

989. Neither of these two forms of the imperative has a first 
person in the singular, because, generally, man does not com- 
mand or order himself. We do what we have in view without 
proffering the order, or if we do it, as in this phrase, 

Keep up thy courage, my friend, Prends courage, mon ami, 

which is sometimes used in speaking to one's self, we use 
the second person singular, because the mind divides him who 
speaks into two persons, one of whom addresses the other. 

990. The third person singular, and plural, are preceded by 
the conjunction que, that, as borrowed from the subjunctive, 
and because they are always supposed to be preceded by the 
words I wish, I order ; as, 

QuHl laboure, means Je veux, fordonne, qu'il laboure. 



Of the Subjunctive Mood. 

991. Sometimes the action expressed by the verb depends 

upon an idea expressed by a preceding verb, existing or un 

derstood in the sentence, whose signification should be the 

manifestation of a desire, fear, doubt, order, anxiety, wish , 

as, 

I wish he may plough. Je desire qu'il laboure. 

I feared that he might not plough Je craignais qu'il ne labourdt pas a 

in time. tems. 

I doubt if he comes. Je douie qu'il vienne. 

I order you to leave the premises. J'ordonne que vous quittiez les lieux , 

&c. 

992. All the forms which express this particular view of the 
mind belong to a mood called subjunctive, from the Latin word 
subjungere, which means to unite, with an idea of submission. 

Let us examine the different forms or tenses of this mood. 
When I say, 

I wish him to plough now, Je desire qu'il laboure dans ce mo- 

ment, 

I wish him to plough next week, Je desire qu'il laboure la semaine 

prochaine, 

the form, quHl laboure, which is the same in either case, 
expresses a present in the first sentence, and a future in the 
second. To these two questions, 



244 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Does he plough ? Shall he plough ? Laboure-t-il ? Labourera-t-il? 

the same answer may be made ; 

I doubt if he ploughs, or, if he shall Je doute qu'il laboure. 
plough. 

Therefore this form is altogether a present and a future, and 
we shall call it the present and future of the Subjunctive. 



Of the Imperfect of the Subjunctive. 

993. We may say, 

I had doubted, I have doubted, I J'avais doute, j'ai doute, je doutai, 
doubted, that he might plough. je doutais qu'il labourat. 

In either of these cases the action of ploughing is past in 
regard to the moment when I speak, but it is simultaneous 
with that of doubting ; it thus represents a past and a present 
in two different points of view, and at the same time, the de- 
pendence required by the subjunctive ; the tense used to 
express this situation of the mind, represented by the verb, 
ought, then, to be called the Imperfect of the Subjunctive, for 
the same reasons which have qualified the imperfect of the 
indicative. 



Of the Preterite of the Subjunctive. 

994. The Preterite of the Subjunctive expresses an action 
already past at the moment we speak, or an action in the 
future at that moment, but which the mind considers as being 
already past, when that expressed by the first verb takes 
place, as in the following ; 

It has been necessary that he should II a fallu qu'il ait laboure. 

plough. 

He shall not come to my house II ne viendra pas chezmoi qu'il rCait 

before he has ploughed. laboure. 

The first sentence expresses a definite past, entirely accom- 
plished. 

The second means, that the action of ploughing, which is in 
the future, but will be past and completed at the time when the 



VERB. 245 

action of the first verb is performed, and consequently requires 
the appellation of preterite, and on account of the dependence 
of the second verb in regard to the first, the tense which repre- 
sents this situation is called the Preterite of the Subjunctive. 



995. Of the Pluperfect of the Subjunctive. 

They had feared that I might have On avait craint que j'ewsse labourb 
ploughed too soon. trop tot. 

This sentence expresses, evidently, a pluperfect, according 
to what has been said when speaking of the indicative mood, 
because the fact of having ploughed too soon was past before 
the time when the fear was experienced. 

They wished that I might have On desirerait que yeusse laboure 
ploughed before such a time. avant telle epoque. 

This phrase, which expresses a future in regard to the time 
when we speak, is a pluperfect in regard to the time spoken of ; 
and the second verb being under the control of the first, this 
tense is named the Pluperfect of the Subjunctive, 



Of the Infinitive Mood. 

996. When a verb expresses an action or a situation without 
reference to time, number, and persons, that verb is said to be 
in the infinitive mood. This denomination does not express 
in itself the meaning of the word, but it is authorized by usage 
and practice. 

To plough, to suffer, to render, Labourer, souffrir, rendre, 

signify, simply, to be ploughing, to be suffering, to be render- 
ing, or to exist with the modification of ploughing, suffering, 
or rendering, without saying whether the action expressed by 
the verb is performed by me, or some other, by one or sev- 
eral, now, in the past, or the future ; these verbs are then said 
to be in the infinitive mood. 

Let us examine now what are the modifications or different 
forms of this mood. 

21* 



246 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Of the Present Participle. 

997. The Present Participle is a modification of the infini- 
tive mood, being deprived of number and persons, but always 
referring to the time present ; it expresses, like the verb, the 
fact of existence, modified by the meaning of the verb. 
Ploughing, Labourant, 

signifies, existing in performing the act of ploughing. This 
tense, joined to the verb to be, serves to decompose, and ex- 
press the action contained in the verb itself; it is invariably 
terminated in ant, and expresses always the idea of simulta- 
neousness with the epoch spoken of, and for this reason is 
called the Present Participle. The appellation, participle, 
comes from the fact that it participates with the verb to be in 
expressing the action of all the verbs. 



Of the Past Participle. 

998. The Past Participle is a modification of the infini- 
tive mood, having no persons, expressing no action, but a 
situation. 

Ploughed, Laboure, 

signifies, existing with the modification of being ploughed. 

The past participle, with the verbs to have and to be, forms 
the compound tenses of all the verbs ; it always expresses a 
relation anterior to the time present, and for that reason is 
called the past participle. 

With the verb to have it shows the action of the subject, 
and with the verb to be its situation, and in this latter case 
agrees with it in number and gender. 

The termination of this tense varies considerably, according 
to the different conjugations, and the fact of the verb being 
regular or irregular. 

The rules which establish its agreement with its nominative 
and direct object constitute the most difficult part of our lan- 
guage. We shall, hereafter, explain them, so as not to leave 
any embarrassment in the mind of the student. 



VERB. 247 

999. Let us now recapitulate, in few words, what we have 
said at some length, of the different moods of the verb. 

Infinitive. 

1000. This mood expresses simply the fact of existing, 
with a specified modification. 

It has three forms or tenses ; 
The Present of the Infinitive. 
The Present Participle. 
The Past Participle. 

Indicative. 

1001. This mood has for its distinct characteristic, to affirm 
in a positive and absolute manner. 

It has eight forms or tenses ; 

The Present. 

The Imperfect. 

The Preterite Definite. 

The Preterite Indefinite. 

The Pluperfect. 

The Preterite Anterior. 

The Future Present or Absolute. 

The Future Past. 

Conditional. 

1002. This mood affirms, but on a condition expressed or 
understood. 

Its principal forms or tenses are two in number ; 
The Conditional Present. 
The Conditional Past. 

Imperative. 

1003. This mood expresses order or demand ; it is appli- 
cable to the present and future, and has but one form or tense ; 

The Imperative Present. 

Subjunctive. 

1004. This mode expresses fear, doubt, anxiety, wish, 
order, and is always under the control of another verb, which 
precedes it, expressed or understood ; it is also always pre- 
ceded by que in all its tenses and persons- 



248 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

These tenses or forms are four in number : 
The Present ; 
The Imperfect ; 
The Preterite ; 
The Pluperfect. 

The verb, instead of being affirmative, might be interroga- 
tive, thus answering to the wants of the mind when any ques- 
tion is to be asked. 

Under this form the verb has but two moods, the Indicative 
and Conditional, and may be expressed under ten different 
forms or tenses, which belong to these two moods. 



OF THE DIFFERENT SORTS OF VERBS. 

1005. The verbs, in regard to the manner in which they are 
employed with their tenses and persons are divided into three 
classes : 

Regular Verbs ; 
Irregular Verbs ; 
Defective Verbs. 

Regular verbs are those whose terminations in their different 
tenses and persons, primitive or derivative, are like those of 
the verb which is used as a model. 

The irregular verbs are those whose terminations do not 
conform to those of the standard verbs in all the tenses and 
persons. 

Defective Verbs are those which are deficient in some of 
their tenses and persons. 

1006. The verbs, in regard to their functions in the lan- 
guage, are divided into six distinct classes : 

1st. The Auxiliaries to have and to be, which are used to form 
the compound tenses of all the verbs, including themselves. 
2d. The Active Verbs. 
3d. The Passive Verbs. 
4th. The Neuter Verbs. 
5th. The Reflective Verbs. 
6th. The Impersonal Verbs. 



VERB. 249 



Auxiliary Verbs. 

1007. The auxiliary verbs are, to have and to be, avoir and 
etre. They are called auxiliary, from the Latin word auxilium, 
which means succour, help ; because they serve to conjugate all 
the verbs in their compound tenses. 



Active Verbs. 

1008. Active verbs are those which have a direct object ; 
as, aimer, to love ; lire, to read ; ecrire, to write. They are 
known to be active, because they may be followed by somebody 
or something, quelqu'un or quelque chose ; thus, we may say, 

To love something or somebody ; to Aimer quelqu'un ou quelque chose ; 
read something, to write some- lire quelque chose, ecrire quelque 
thing. chose. 

The verb avoir, to have, when not employed as an auxiliary, 
but expressing possession, is an active verb ; as, 

I have a book ; I have, what ? a J'ai un livre ; j'ai, quoi ? un livre. 
book. 



Passive Verbs. 

1009. Passive verbs are those whose action is applied or 
felt by the subject ; as, 

I am loved, he is burned, we are Je suis aime, il est brule, nous 
beaten. sommes battus. 

In these sentences the subject does not act, but is acted upon 
by the verb. Passive verbs are conjugated with the auxiliary 
etre, to be. 

All the active verbs may be conjugated in the passive form, 
but the neuter verbs cannot. 



Neuter Verbs. 

1010. Neuter verbs are those which have no direct object, 
that is to say, after which cannot be placed the words somebody 
or something ; such are, 



250 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



Togo, 


Aller, 


To speak ill (of), 


Medire, 


To fall, 


Tomber, 



because we cannot say, 

To go somebody, speak ill some- Aller quelqu'un or quelque chose, 
body, fall something. medire quelqu'un or quelque 

chose, tomber quelqu'un or quel- 
que chose. 



Reflective Verbs. 

1011. Reflective verbs are those which are conjugated with 
two personal pronouns of the same person, one nominative, and 
the other objective. They are called reflective, because the 
nominative receives the action of the verb, or, in other words, 
the action of the verb reflects upon the nominative ; as, 

I flatter myself, he flatters himself, Je me flatte, il se flatte, &c. 
&c. 

In je me flatte, je is the subject who flatters, me is the object 
or person flattered ; therefore, the one who flatters, and he 
who receives flattery, being the same person, the action of the 
verb returns or reflects upon him who acts, or upon the nomin- 
ative, and the verb is thus made reflective. 

1012. In reflective verbs, the objective pronoun is some- 
times the direct, and sometimes the indirect object of the verb ; 
in this sentence, 

I love myself, Je m'aime, or J'aime moi, 

me or moi is the direct object of the verb ; but, in the follow- 
ing : 

I say to myself, Je me dis, or Je dis a moi, 

me or a moi is the indirect object, and should be preceded by 
a preposition, to receive the action of the verb. 

1013. There are two sorts of reflective verbs : 1st. Those 
which are never conjugated, or used, without two pronouns of 
the same person preceding the verb ; as, 

I repent, I mock, &c, Je me repens, Je me moque, &c. ; 

we could not say, je repens^je moque, &c. 



VERB. 251 

1014. Those which are sometimes conjugated with one, and 
sometimes with two pronouns of the same persons, according 
to the idea we have to express ; as, 

I praise myself, Je me loue, 

I burn myself, Je me brule, 

because we may say, in other cases, je loue^je brule. 

1015. Reflective verbs are sometimes reciprocal, and be- 
come such by the addition of a reciprocal pronoun after them ; 
they express that the action of the verb is reflected upon the 
nominative as well as upon somebody else ; as, 

They love each other. lis s'aiment Pun l'autre. 

They hurt each other. lis se font du tort les uns aux au- 

tres. 

The action expressed by the reciprocal verbs always con- 
cerning at least two persons, this verb is always used in the 
plural ; if it relates only to two individuals, the reciprocal pro- 
noun remains in the singular ; if it concerns more than two, 
then the reciprocal pronoun is put in the plural. The two 
above examples illustrate both cases. 



Reciprocal Verbs. 

1016. The reflective and reciprocal verbs are all conjugated 
with the auxiliary verb etre, to be. 

(See the conjugation of these verbs, at the end of the 
Grammar.) 



Impersonal Verbs. 

1017. Impersonal verbs are those which, in their conjuga- 
tion, admit only the third person singular of each tense ; as, 

It rains, it snows, it is necessary, II pleut, il neige, il est necesssaire. 
&c. 

The verb to be, in English, admits of the two third per- 
sons, singular and plural ; but, in French, it follows the general 
rule, and is only used in the third person singular. 



252 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



OP CONJUGATIONS, 



1018. The word conjugation comes from the Latin conju- 
gation which means union, junction, coupling together under the 
same yoke. 

To conjugate a verb is to recite it with all its tenses, per- 
sons, and numbers ; that is say, to repeat it, with all the modi- 
fications produced by modes, tenses, persons, and numbers. 

We have already examined and explained all that relates to 
the tenses and moods ; let us see now what we understand by 
persons and numbers. 



OF PERSONS AND NUMBERS. 

1019. There are three persons in the verb : 
Thejirst is that who speaks ; 

The second is that who is spoken to ; 
The third is that who is spoken of. 

1020. As we have seen under the article personal pronouns 
nominative, the pronouns of the first person are je in the sin- 
gular, and nous in the plural : thus, when we say je parle, I 
speak, there is but one person who speaks ; when we say nous 
parlons, there are several persons speaking. 

3 021. The pronoun of the second person is tu in the sin- 
gular, and vous in the plural ; but usage and politeness require 
generally the use of these two pronouns in the singular ; thus, 
addressing a single person, we say, tu paries, or vous parlez ; 
addressing several, vous parlez. 

1 022. The pronouns of the third person are il and elle in 
the singular, Us and elles in the plural ; thus, speaking of one 
person, we say, jf/ or elle parle, he or she speaks ; and of sev- 
eral, lis or elles par lent, they speak. 

Names of things or persons are all in the third person, sin- 
gular or plural ; as, 

The sun shines. Le soleil brille. 

Men are good. Les hommes sont bons. 

Napoleon was great. NapoUon etait grand. 



VERB. 253 

1023. Verbs have two numbers, the singular and the plural. 
What we have just said of persons renders further explanation 
unnecessary. 



OF DIFFERENT SORTS OF CONJUGATIONS. 

1024. We have, in French, four conjugations distinguished 
from each other by the difference in the termination of the 
present tense of their infinitive. 

1025. The first conjugation has its infinitive terminating in 
er ; as, aimer, to love, parler, to speak. 

1026. The second conjugation has its infinitive ending in ir ; 
as, finir, to finish, mourir, to die. 

1027. The third conjugation has its infinitive terminating in 
oir ; as, recevoir, to receive, vouloir, to be willing. 

1028. The fourth conjugation has its infinitive ending in re ; 
as, rendre, to render, prendre, to take, boire, to drink. 

1029. The four conjugations include all the French verbs 
in their compass. Grammarians are at great variance as to the 
classification of verbs in conjugations ; although they cannot 
find any other terminations than these four, some pretend, in 
order to facilitate the study of verbs, that they ought to divide 
them into as many conjugations as there are groups of them 
which may be conjugated alike, and call them regular, reducing 
thus the number of the irregular verbs almost to nothing. 

Some do not go so far, and admit as regular those only which, 
by their number, may form separate classes, leaving thus a 
larger number irregular. 

1030. But these different systems, after all, are of no assist- 
ance to the student ; on the contrary, they produce a confusion 
in his mind. Having a great number of classes of regular 
verbs with the same termination, he is at a loss to remember 
to which class any particular verb may belong ; therefore, we 
will preserve the old plan, and admit only four conjugations ; 
take a verb as a model in each one ; call regular all those which 
are conjugated alike in all tenses and persons, and irregular, 
those which differ from them. 

22 



254 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

In order to facilitate the study of the conjugations, we shall 
place at the end of this grammar the models of each one, with 
its modifications in form, as well as a complete table of all the 
irregular verbs, conjugated in full with all their tenses and per- 
sons. 



OF MIDDLE VERBS. 

1031. Now that we have shown the verb in all its phases 
of regularity and irregularity ; in its different forms, affirmative, 
negative, and interrogative ; in its four conditions, active and 
passive, reflective and reciprocal ; it becomes necessary to ex- 
plain a peculiar property of a certain number of them, that of 
being used sometimes actively, and sometimes passively, with 
or without the same auxiliary verb to have. 

These verbs are called Middle Verbs , from the Greek, which 
admits of three voices, active, passive, and middle ; the last 
of which is so called because it partakes of the two others. 

The knowledge of these verbs is of great importance to 
foreigners, who have no indications to understand their mean- 
ing without it. 

ACTIVE MEANING. PASSIVE MEANING. 

Abetir. 
To stupefy. To grow stupid. 

Too great severity stupefies chil- This child grows stupid from day 

dren. to day. 

La trop grande severite abetit les Cet enfant abetit de jour en jour, 
enfants. 

Abonnir. 
To better, to improve. To grow better. 

Cool cellars better, improve wine. That wine will grow better in time. 
Les caves fraiches abonnissent le Ce vin abonnira avec le temps, 
vin. 

Jlccoutumer. 
To accustom. To use. 

Children must be early accustomed His father used to teach him most- 

to labor. ly by examples. 

On doit accoutumerde bonne heure Son pere avait accoutume de l'un- 
les enfants au travail. struire surtout par des exemples. 

(Not used.) 
(This verb is middle only in compound tenses.) 



VERB. 255 

Accroitre. 
To increase. To augment. 

He thinks of nothing but increas- His fortune augments every day. 

ing his fortune. 
II ne pense qu'a accroitre sa for- Sa fortune accroit tous les jours, 
tune. 

Agreer. 

To accept. To approve. 

I beg you would accept my servi- He had purchased the place, but it 

ces. was not approved by the king. 

Veuillez agreer mes services. II avait achete la place, mais le roi 

ne l'avait point agree. 

Amaigrir. 
To make lean. To grow lean. 

Abstinence makes him lean. The cattle will grow lean here. 

Le jeune l'amaigrit. Les bestiaux amaigriront ici. 

Jlmoindrir. 

To lessen. To lessen. 

This will lessen your income. Your income will be considerably 

lessened by it. 
Ceci amoindrira votre revenu. Votre revenu en amoindrira con- 

siderablement. (Not used.) 

Arreter. 

To arrest. To stop. 

We must arrest the current of this After eight days travelling we 

brook. stopped at Boston. 

U faut arreter le cours de ce ruis- Apres huit jours de voyage, nous 
seau. arr6tames a Boston. 

Augmenter. 
To increase. To augment. 



He increases his income every day. His income augments every day. 
II augmente son revenu tous les Son revenu augmente tous lc 
jours. jours. 



les 



Baisser. 
To let down. To fall. 

When the play was over, they let The stock begins to fall. 

down the curtain. 
Quand la piece fut jouee, on bais- Les actions commencent a baisser. 
sa le rideau. 

Battre. 
To beat. To beat. 

He beats the drum. The drum was beating. 

II bat la caisse. Le tambour battait. 

Blanchir. 
To whiten. To grow white. 

This paste whitens the skin. A fool's head never grows white. 

Cette pate blanchit la peau. Une tete de fou ne blanchit jamais. 



256 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Bouffir. 
To bloat. To swell. 

The humors have bloated his His face is swelling. 

whole body. 
Les humeurs lui ont bouffi tout le Le visage lui bouffit. 
corps. 

Branler. 
To shake. To shake. 

He shakes his head. His head was shaking. 

II branle la tete. La tete lui branlait. 

B riser. 

To break. To break. 

Her lover broke his shackles. The ship broke to pieces on the 

rocks. 
Son amant a brise ses fers. Le vaisseau se brisa en mille pieces 

contre les rochers. 

Bruler. 
To burn. To be burning. 

Formerly they used to burn the One could see the ship burning. 

dead. 
Autrefois on brulait les morts. Onpouvait voir le vaisseau bruler. 

Brunir. 
To make brown. To grow dark. 

The weather makes the skin Your hair begins to grow dark. 

brown. 
Le hale brunit le teint. Vos cheveux commencent a brunir. 

Casser. 

To break. To break. 

The fatigues of war have broken In the midst of the operation the 

his constitution very much. rope broke. 

Les fatigues de la guerre l'ont Au milieu de l'operation la corde 
beaucoup casse. cassa. 

Changer. 
To change. To change. 

This storm will change the weath- Fashion changes from day to day. 
er. Les modes changent de jour en 

Cet orage changera le temps. jour. 

Chauffer. 
To heat. To be heated. 

While they heat the bath. While the bath is heating. 

Pendant qu'on chauffera le bain. Pendant que le bain chauffera. 

Clore. 
To shut. To shut. 

I have not shut my eyes. That door does not shut well. 

Je n'ai pas clos Pceil. Cette porte ne clot pas bien. 



VERB. 257 

Commencer. 

To begin. To begin. 

We must begin the day well. The day did not begin successful- 

II faut bien commencer la journee. Le jour n'a pas commence heur- 

eusement. 

Communier. 

To give the communion. To receive communion. 

His curate gave him the comraun- He has received the communion 

ion. from his curate. 

Son cure lui a donne la commun- II a communie de la main de son 
ion. cure. 

Continuer. 
To continue. To last. 

He has continued his inquiries. If the war lasts, we are lost. 

II a continue ses recherches. Si la guerre continue nous sommes 

perdus. 

Coucher. 
To put to bed. To sleep. 

We must put this child to bed. We slept at the house of a friend. 

II faut coucher cet enfant. Nous couchames chez un ami. 

Couler. 

To cast. To run. 

To cast a plate of glass. The ink is too thick, it does not 

run free. 
Couler une glace. L'encre est trop epaisse, elle ne 

coule pas bien. 

Couver. 
To brood. To lie hid. 

He broods ill designs. The fire lies hid under the ashes. 

II couve de mauvais desseins. Le feu couve sous la cendre. 

Crever. 

To burst To burst. 

This load of powder will burst the The barrel could not resist, and 

gun. burst. 

Cette charge de poudre crevera le Le canon ne put resister, et creva. 
canon. 

Cuire. 
To cook. To boil. 

Cook the meat before a small fire. These peas will never boil well. 
Cuisez la viande a petit feu. Ces pois ne cuisent pas bien. 

Debarquer. 

To disembark. To be disembarked. 

We disembarked the troops at Bos- The troops were disembarked in 

ton. Jamaica. 

Nous debarquames les troupes a Les troupes debarquerent a la Ja- 

Boston. ma'ique. 
22* 



258 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Debonder. 
To open. To burst. 

Open the dam. The pond burst forth. 

Debondez l'etang. L'etang a debonde. 

Decoucher. 
To put out of bed. To lie out. 

Do not put that child out of bed. To lie out is a bad habit. 
Ne decouchez pas cet enfant. Decoucher est une mauvaise habi- 

tude. 

Degeler. 
To thaw. To be thawed. 

The air has thawed the river. The river begins to be thawed. 

Le vent a degele la riviere. La riviere commence a degeler. 

Degorger. 
To open. To empty. 

It would be necessary to open the If the sewer empties, the neigh- 
sewer, bourhood will be infected. 
II faudrait degorger l'egout. Si l'egout degorge, le voisinage 

sera infecte. 

Dejucher. 
To unroost. To unroost. 

Go and unroost the chickens. The chickens will unroost soon. 

Allez dejucher les poules. Les poules dejucheront bientdt. 

Deloger. 

To dislodge. To decamp. 

Th ey will dislodge the enemy. The enemy decamped during the 

night. 
On delogera l'ennemi. L'ennemi delogea pendant la nuit. 

Denicher. 
To dislodge. To decamp. 

They have dislodged the robbers The enemy were frightened and 

from their den. decamped during the night. 

On a deniche les voleurs de leur Les ennemis eurent peur et deni- 
repaire. cherent pendant la nuit. 

Derougir. 
To take off the redness. To fade. 

Her face was quite red with the Her face will fade in the open air. 
small-pox, and one month of time 
took off all the redness. 
Elle avait la figure toute rouge de Sa figure derougira a Pair, 
la petite verole, un mois Pa en- 
tierement derougie. 

Descendre. 
Take down. To reach. 

You must take down this picture. Her hair reaches to her waist. 
Descendez ce tableau. Les cheveux lui descendent jus- 

qu'a la ceinture. 



VERB. 259 

Desenfler. 

To take the swelling away ; to let rp a k ate 

out the wind. 
Let out the wind of this football. The swelling of his arm begins to 

abate. 
Desenflez ce ballon. Son bras commence a. desenfler. 

Desenivrer. 
To sober. To be sober. 

Sleeping has sobered him. He is never sober. 

Le sommeil l'a desenivre. II ne desenivre jamais. 

Diminuer. 
To impair. To lessen. 

His misfortunes have impaired his His credit lessens every day. 

credit. 
Ses malheurs ont diminue son Son credit diminue tous les jours. 
credit 

Discontinuer. 

To stop. To cease. 

They stopped playing. War has not ceased for the last 

twenty years, 
lis discontinu&rent le jeu. La guerre n'a pas discontinue de- 

puis vingt ans. 

Doubler, 
To double. To be doubled. 

He has doubled his fortune in two His fortune has been doubled by 

years. trade. 

II a double sa fortune en deux ans. Sa fortune a double dans le com- 
merce. 

Dresser. 
To carry high. To stand. 

This girl carries her head very His hair stood on end. 

high. 
Cette jeune fille dresse la tete Les cheveux lui dresserent sur la 
bien haut. tete. 

Durcir. 
To harden. To harden. 

A great heat hardens the ground. Oak hardens in water. 
La grande chaleur durcit la terre. Le chene durcit dans l'eau. 

Echauffer. 
To warm. To be warmed. 

He is so cold that we cannot warm He is so cold that he cannot be 

him. warmed. 

II a si froid que nous ne pouvons II a si froid qu'il ne saurait 
Pechauffer. s'echauffer. 



260 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Echouer. 
To run on shore. To be run on shore. 

The pilot ran his ship on shore. Our vessel was run on shore on a 

sand bank. 
Le pilote echoua son vaisseau sur Notre vaisseau echoua sur un banc 
le rivage. de sable. 

Embellir. 
Embellish. To grow handsome. 

This fountain will embellish your She grows handsome every day. 

garden. 
Cette fontaine embellira votre jar- Elle embellit tous les jours, 
din. 

Emmaigrir. 
To make thin. To grow thin. 

The excess of labor had made him He grows thinner every day. 

thin. 
L exces du travail l'avait emmaigri. II emmaigrit touts les jours. 

Empirer. 
To make worse. To grow worse. 

Medicines have made him worse. The patient grew worse at night. 
Les remedes ont empire sa mala- Le malade empira vers le soir. 
die. 

Encherir. 

To raise the price. To rise in price. 

You have raised the price of your Wheat has risen in price this year. 

goods. 
Vous avez encheri vos marchan- Le bled a encheri cette annee. 
dises. 

Enfler. 
To swell. To be swelling. 

The rains have swelled the river. The river is swelling rapidly. 
Les pluies ont enfle la riviere. La riviere enflerapidement. 

Enfoncer. 
To sink. To sink. 

We must sink this log in the wa- His house sunk in a cavity. 

ter. 
II faut enfoncer ce pieu dans l'eau. Sa maison enfonca dans une cavite. 

Enlaidir. 

To disfigure. To grow ugly. 

The small-pox has disfigured her. This woman grows more and more 

ugly- 
La petite verole l'a enlaidie. Cette femme enlaidit de plus en 

plus. 



VERB, 



261 



Epaissir. 
To thicken. To thicken. 

Food thickens the blood. Preserves thicken by boiling. 

Les aliments epaississent le sang. Les confitures epaississent en cui- 

sant. 

Etouffer. 
To suffocate. To be suffocated. 

The . excessive heat suffocates our Our workmen are suffocated with 

laborers. the heat. 

L'excessive chaleur etouffe nos Nos ouvriers etouffent de chaleur. 
ouvriers. 

Fermer. 
To shut. To shut. 

Take care to shut your door. This door does not shut well. 

Ayez soin de fermer votre porte. Cette porte ne ferme pas bien. 

Finir. 

To have an end. 
This affair will have no end. 
Cette affaire ne finira jamais. 

FUchir. 

To bend. 
Let every knee bend before him. 
Que tout genou flechisse devant lui. 



To finish. 
I shall soon finish this affair. 
Je finirai bientot cette affaire. 



To bend. 
He will never bend his knees. 
U ne flechira jamais le genou. 



To melt. 

The heat melted all the wax. 
La chaleur fondit toute la cire. 



To fry. 

We must fry this salmon. 

II faut frire ce saumon. 



Fondre. 

To be melting. 
The snow is melting. 
La neige fond. 

Frire. 

To be frying. 
This salmon has been frying in the 

pan. 
Ce saumon a fri dans la poile. 

Geler. 

To freeze. To be frozen. 

The cold has frozen the wine in the The wine has been frozen in the 

casks. ; casks. 

Le froid a gele le vin dans les bar- Le vin a gele dans les barriques. 
riques. 

Glacer. 

To freeze. To be frozen. 

The intense cold has frozen even Fountains of living water are never 

the wine. frozen. 

Le grand froid a glace meme le vin. Les fontaines d'eau vive ne glacent 

jamais. 



262 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Gonfler. 
To swell. To swell. 

Vegetables never swell the stomach. As soon as he has eaten, his stom- 
ach swells. 
Les legumes ne gonflent jamais Aussitot qu'il a mange, l'estomac 
l'estomac. lui gonfle. 

Griller. 

To scorch. To broil. 

The fire has scorched his legs. Let us drink while the chops broil. 

Le feu lui a grille les jambes. Buvons pendant que les cotelettes 

grillent. 

Grossir. 
To swell. To swell. 

The rains have swelled the river. The river has swelled much. 
Les pluies ont grossi la riviere. La riviere a bien grossi. 

Guerir. 
To cure. To be cured. 

My physician has cured him per- He is very sick, but he will soon be 

fectly. cured. 

Mon medecin l'a gueri parfaite- II est tres malade, mais il guerira 
ment. bientot. 

Hausser. 
To raise. To be raised. 

They have raised his wages this His wages have been raised this 

year. year. 

On a hausse ses gages cette annee. Ses gages ont hausse cette an nee. 

Jaunir. 
To make yellow. To turn yellow. 

Make this linen yellow. The wheat turns yellow. 

Jaunissez cette toile. Les bles jaunissent. 

Joindre. 
To join. To join. 

We must join these two planks. These two planks do not join. 

II faut joindre ces planches. Ces deux planches ne joignent pas. 

Lacker. 
To slack. To slacken. 

You ought to slack this rope. This rope slackens too much. 

Vous devriez lacher cette corde. Cette corde lache trop. 

Lever. 
To lift. To shoot. 

We cannot lift this heavy stone. Barley shoots sooner than wheat. 

Nous ne pouvons lever cette enorme L'orge leve plus tot que le bled, 
pierre. 



VERB. 263 



Loger. 



To lodge. To live. 

We cannot lodge three thousand We live near the palace. 

men in these barracks. 
Nous ne pouvons loger trois mille Nous logeons pres du palais. 

hommes dans cette caserne. 

Manquer. 
To miss. To be wanted. 

You have missed a fine opportunity. Provisions were wanted in the city. 
Vous avez manque une belle occa- Les vivres manquaient dans la ville. 
sion. 

Monter. 

To carry up. To amount. 

Carry up this furniture to my room. These sums amount to ten thousand 

dollars. 
Montez ces meubles dans ma Ces sommes montent a dix mille 
chambre. gourdes. 

Multiplier. 

To increase. To multiply. 

They will increase the sentries. Rabbits multiply with an incredible 

rapidity. 
On multipliera les sentinelles. Les lapins multiplient avec une in- 

croyable rapidite. 

Noircir. 

To blacken. To blacken. 

The sun blackens the skin. The skin blackens in the sun. 

Le soleil noircit la peau. La peau noircit au soleil. 

Ouvrir. 
To open. To be opened. 

You must open this door. This window is never opened. 

II faut ouvrir cette porte. Cette fenetre n'ouvre jamais. 

Paitre. 
To pasture. To graze. 

Lead these sheep to pasture. The horses are grazing in the pas- 

ture. 
Paissez ces moutons. Ces chevaux paissent dans la prairie. 

Parquer. 
To pen up. To be penned. 

They have penned up their sheep. Our sheep are not yet penned, 
lis ont parque leurs moutons. Nos moutons ne parquent pas encore. 

Passer. 
To pass. To be carried. 

They have passed the cannons in the The cannons were carried in the 

boats. boats, 

lis ont passe les canons dans les Les canons passerent dans les ba- 
bateaux. teaux. 



264 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Peiner. 
To fatigue. To be fatigued. 

This work will fatigue us extremely. Horses are fatigued much on that 

road. 
Cet ouvragenous peinerabeaucoup. Les ehevaux peinent beaucoup sur 

cette route. 

Pencher. 
To incline. To bend downward. 

Incline this vase a little. This tree bends downward. 

Penchez un peu ce vase. Cet arbre penche. 

Pendre. 

To hang. To hang. 

We have hung our raisins in the The fruit which hangs from that 

sun. tree. 

Nous avons pendu nos raisins au Les fruits qui pendent a cet arbre. 
soleil. 

Peser. 

To weigh. To weigh. 

We must weigh this bale of cotton . This bale weighs two hundred 

pounds. 
II faut peser cette balle de coton. Cette balle pese deux cents livres. 

Peupler. 

To stock with. To increase. 

They have stocked this pond with There are no fish which increase 

carps. more than the carp. 

On a peuple cet etang de carpes. II n'y a pas de poisson qui peuple 

autant que la carpe. 

Plier. 
To fold. To sink. 

You must fold your arm. The floor sunk under the weight. 

II faut plier votre bras. Le plancher pliait sous le poids. 

Plonger. 

To dip. To dive. 

They have dipped that man in the These fishermen dive to the bottom 

sea. of the sea. 

On a plonge cet homme dans la mer. Ces pecheurs plongent jusqu'au 

fond de la mer. 

Porter. 
To support. To bear. 

Two columns support this gallery. These shelves do not bear steadily. 
Deux colonnes portent cette galerie. Ces tablettes portent a faux. 

Poser. 

To lay. To bear. 

Lay this beam on the wall. The beam does not bear enough on 

the wall. 
Posez cette poutre sur le mur. Cette poutre ne pose pas assez sur 

le mur. 



VEBR. 265 

Pourrir. 
To rot. To rot. 

The rain has rotted the crop. Fruit rots when kept too long. 

Les pluies ont pourri la recolte. Les fruits pourrissent quand on les 

garde trop long terns. 

Preter. 
To lend. To stretch. 

I shall lend you my carriage. That leather stretches like a glove. 
Je vous preterai ma voiture. Ce cuir prete comme un gant. 

Profiter. 
To gain. To improve. 

He has gained by the advice given Our advice has improved him much, 
him. 

II a proflte des avis qu'on lui a don- Nos avis lui ont beaucoup proflte. 
nes. 

Quadrupler. 

To increase fourfold. To increase fourfold. 

His economy has increased his in- His income has increased fourfold. 

come fourfold. 
Ses economies ont quadruple son Son revenu a quadruple. 

revenu. 

Raccourcir. 
To shorten. To grow short. 

She has shortened her dress. The days shorten every day. 

Elle a raccourci sa robe. Les jours raccourcissentchaque jour. 

Rafraichir. 
To refresh. To cool. 

We must refresh the wine. The wine will cool in water. 

II faut rafraichir le vin. Le vin rafraichit dans l'eau. 

Rajeunir. 

To make one appear younger. To grow younger. 

This wig makes you appear much This woman grows younger every 

younger. day. 

Cette perruque vous rajeunit beau- Cette femme rajeunit tous les jours. 

coup. 

Rapetisser. 
To lessen. To lessen. 

You must lessen this table. The days are lessening. 

Rapetissez cette table. Les jours rapetissent. 

Redoublir. 
To increase. To increase. 

This news has increased my afflic- My fears are increasing. 

tion. 
Cette nouvelle a redouble mon afflic- Mes craintes redoublent. 
tion. 

23 



266 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Reflechir. 
To reflect. To be reflected. 

Mirrors reflect the rays of the sun. The rays of the sun are reflected by 

a mirror. 
Les miroirs reflechissent les rayons Les rayons du soleil reflechissent 
du soleil. d'un miroir. (Not used.) 

Refroidir. 
To refresh. To cool. 

The rain has refreshed the air. While the soup cools. 

La pluie a refroidi Pair. Pendant que la soupe refroidira. 

Relever. 
To relieve. To recover. 

This inheritance has relieved his To be just recovered of an illness. 

distresses. 
Cette succession a releve ses affaires. Relever de maladie. 

Reposer. 
To settle. To lie. 

Sleeping settles the complexion. He lies on his bed. 

Le sommeil repose le teint. II repose sur son lit. 

Ressusciter. 
To resuscitate. To be resuscitated. 

Jesus Christ resuscitated Lazarus. Jesus Christ was resuscitated the 

third day. 
Jesus Christ ressuscita Lazare. Jesus Christ ressuscita le troisieme 

jour. 

Retarder. 
To delay. To be delayed. 

Why delay this marriage ? This marriage is delayed from day 

to day. 
Pourquoi retarder ce mariage ? Ce mariage retarde de jour en jour. 

Reverdir. 

To paint green again. To become green again. 

Those rails must be painted green The trees begin to become green 

again. again. 

II faut reverdirces barreaux. Ces arbres commencent a reverdir. 

Roidir. 
To stretch. To stiffen. 

Stretch your arm. He stiffened with cold. 

Roidissez votre bras. II roidissait de froid. 

Rompre. 
To break. To break. 

He has broken the doors. This beam will break. 

II a rompu les portes. Cette poutre rompra. 



VERB. 267 

Rotir. 
To burn. To be scorching. 

The excessive heat has burnt the You are scorching under the sun. 

plants. 
L'excessivechaleurarotilesplantes. Vous rotissez au soleil. 

Rouler. 
To roll. To roll. 

He rolled his eyes about as if he His eyes rolled in his head. 

were possessed. 
II roulait les yeux comme un pos- Les yeux lui roulaient dans la tete. 
sede. 

Roussir. 
To redden. To turn red. 

Air reddens paper. Your paper will turn red. 

L'air roussit le papier. Votre papier roussira. 

Saigner. 
To bleed. To be bleeding. 

They bled him on the arm. His wounds are still bleeding. 

On l'a saigne au bras. Ses blessures saignent encore. 

Secher. 
To dry up. To dry. 

The sun dries up prairies. The cloak will dry in the sun. 

Le soleil seche les prairies. Le manteau sechera au soleil. 

Sonner. 
To ring. To ring. 

They are about ringing for dinner. The bell rings. 
On va sonner le diner. Le cloche sonne. 

Suffoquer. 
To suffocate. To be suffocating. 

His catarrh will suffocate him. He is suffocating with heat. 

Son catarrhe le suffoquera. II suffoque de chaleur. 

Tarir. 
To dry up. To be dried up. 

The heat has dried up the fountains. The fountains have been dried up. 
La chaleur a tari les fontaines. Les fontaines ont tari. 

Tenir. 
To hold. To hold. 

The king held the power but a short These parts do not hold together. 

time. 
Le roi ne tint le pouvoir que peu de Ces parties ne tiennent pas ensemble, 
terns. 

Tirer. 
To fire. To be fired. 

They fired the guns at once. The guns were fired at twelve. 

On tira le canon aussitot. Le canon tira a midi. 



268 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Tourner. 
To turn. To turn. 

You will have to turn the wheel. The earth turns around the sun, 
Vous aurez a tourner la roue. La terre tourne autour du soleih 

Trainer. 
To drag. To linger. 

To drag a malefactor on a hurdle. This business lingers. 
Trainer un malfaiteur sur la claie. Cette affaire traine. 

Transir. 
To chill. To chill. 

The cold chills me. I am chilling with cold. 

Le froid me transit. Je transis de froid. 

Tremper. 

To dip. To soak. 

Dip these clothes in cold water. These clothes have been soaking for 

two days. 
Trempez ce linge dans l'eau froide. Ce linge trempe depuis deux jours. 

Tripler . 
To treble. To treble. 

He will soon treble his income. His income will soon treble. 

II triplera bientot son revenu. Son revenu triplera bientot. 

Varier. 
To vary. To vary. 

One must vary one's style. The wind has varied several times. 

On doit varier son style. Le vent a varie plusieurs fois. 

Verdir. 
To make green. To turn green. 

We must make this trellis green. All turns green in the spring. 
II faut verdir ce treillage. Tout verdit au printems. 

Verser. 
To upset. To upset. 

This coachman will upset us. This coach will upset. 

Ce cocher nous versera. Cette voiture versera. 

Vieillir. 

To make one grow old. To grow old. 

Sorrow made him grow old very He has grown old in business 

fast. 
Le chagrin l'a vieilli bein vite. II a vieilli dans les affaires. 



VERB. 



269 



OF A CHOICE BETWEEN THE AUXILIARY VERBS to be AND 

to have. 



1032. We are sometimes embarrassed to know when a verb 
must be used with to have or to be, according to the meaning of 
the sentence. 

Some neuter verbs, for instance, must be conjugated with 
to be ; as, 

to die. 
to be bom. 
to succeed. 
to set out. 
to arise, 
to report, 
to remain, 
to result, 
to return, 
to come back, 
to go out. 
to come, 
to fall, 
to come. 



Accourir, 


to hasten. 


Mourir, 


Aller, 


to go. 


Naitre, 


Arriver. 


to arrive. 


Parvenir, 


Choir, 


to fall. 


Porter, 


Convenir, 


to confess, to 


agree Provenir, 




upon. 


Reporter, 


Deborder, 


to overflow. 


Rester, 


Deceder, 


to die. 


Resulter, 


Dechoir, 


to decay. 


Retourner, 


Devenir, 


to become. 


Revenir, 


Echoir, 


to fall. 


Sortir, 


Eclore, 


to hatch. 


Survenir, 


Entrer, 


to enter. 


Tomber, 


Intervener, 


to intervene. 


Venir, 
Examples. 



Les gardes sont accourus aussitot. 

Ces enfants itaient alUs dans la 
prairie. 

Vous ties arrive" de trop bonne heure. 

Elle est chue en montant l'escalier. 

Nous sommes convenus de nos torts. 

lis itaient convenus de prix. 

La riviere est debordee. 

Ces grands hommes sont tous de- 
cides. 

Ce prince est dechu de sa grandeur. 

Les vrais litterateurs sont devenus 
rares. 

Votre billet sera ichu avant votre 
retour. 

Ces ceufs sont 6clos. 

II est intervenu dans cette affaire. 

Leurs parents sont morts. 

Nos malheurs sont nis de nos dis- 
sensions. 

Quand \\fut parti pour la campagne 
je revins chez moi. 

Que de gens sont parvenus a des 
emplois qu'ils ne meritent pas. 

23* 



The guards have hastened at once. 
These children had gone in the 

prairie. 
You have arrived too early. 
She has fallen in going up stairs. 
We have confessed our faults. 
They had agreed upon the price. 
The river has overflowed its banks. 
These great men are all dead. 

The prince has fallen from his 

grandeur. 
Literary men have become rare. 

Your note will become due before 
your return. 

These eggs have hatched. 

He has intervened in this affair. 

Their parents are dead. 

Our misfortunes have arisen from 
our quarrels. 

When he went into the country, I 
came home. 

How many people have obtained sit- 
uations which they do not de- 
serve. 



270 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



L'erreur dans laquelle il est tombd, 
serait elle provenue de son igno- 
rance ? 

lis sont re-partis pour la campagne. 

II en est re" suite de grands malheurs. 

Nous e"tions retourne's au chateau. 

Vos enfants seraient revenus avec 
nous. 

Cette nouvelle est survenue a, 1 'in- 
stant. 

Je doute que le tonnere soit tombe. 

lis sont venus implorer ma clemence. 



Has his error arisen from his igno- 
rance ? 

They have started again for the 

country. 
Great misfortunes have arisen from 

this. 
We had returned to the mansion. 
Your children would have come 

back with us. 
This news has arrived just now. 

I doubt if the thunderbolt has reach- 
ed the ground. 
They came to implore my clemency. 



1033. But some of these verbs are occasionally conjugated 
with to have, according to the meaning of the sentence, as 
will be shown hereafter. 

The following neuter verbs are conjugated with to have : 



Apparoitre, 
Comparaitre, 
Contrevenir, 
Convenir (to be 


to appear, 
to appear, 
to contravene 


convenient), 
Courir, 


to suit, 
to run. 



Disparaitre, 

Echouer, 

Paraitre, 

Subvenir, 



to disappear. 
to shipwreck . 
to appear, 
to supply, 
to relieve. 



L'ombre du grand Hector nous a 

apparu. 
Les temoins ont comparu ce matin. 

Les infideles ont souvent contrevenu 
a leurs traites. 

Cette maison et cet ameblement lui 
auraient convenu. 

Les soldats ont couru vers leur ge- 
neral. 

Ces fantomes ont disparu soudain. 

Un vaisseau Americain a echoue de- 

vant le port. 
Nous avons paru quand on nous a 

appeUs. 
La vraie charite aurait subvenu aux 
i besoins de ces malheureux. 



The spirit of the great Hector has 
appeared to us. 

The witnesses have appeared this 
morning. 

The infidels have often contravened 
their treaties. 

This house and furniture would 
have suited him. 

The soldiers have run to their gen- 
eral. 

These ghosts have disappeared sud- 
denly. 

An American vessel was ship- 
wrecked in sight of the harbour. 

We have appeared when we were 
called. 

True charity would have relieved 
the sufferings of these unfortunate 
people. 



1034. We may, however, use the verb courir with the verb 
to be in some cases, as the following : 

Ce pretre est fort couru, 
Ce cerf a ete fort couru, 



This preacher is much run after, 
This deer has been run hard, 



because, when the verb courir signifies rechercher, seek after, 



VERB. 



271 



or poursuivre, run after, it is then an active verb, which may be 
turned in the passive form. 



1035. The verbs, 



Aborder, 


to disembark, 


Baisser, 


to fall, 


Croitre 


to grow, 


Decroitre, 


to decrease, 


Dechoir, 


to decline,' 



Diminuer, 

Embellir, 

Grandir, 

Rajeunir, 

Vieillir, 



to diminish, 

to grow handsome, 

to grow up, 

to grow young, 

to grow old, 



take the verb to have or to be, according to their signification ; 
they take to have, if they intend to express an action ; and 
to be, if they express the situation of the subject : 

With to have. With to be. 

Our vessels have disembarked at When they had disembarked, we 

Havre. dismounted from our horses. 

Nos vaisseaux ont abordi au Havre. Quand ilsfurent abordes nous mimes 

pied a terre. 

The shares have fallen from day to They have fallen to-day more than 

day. ever. 

Les actions ont baissd de jour en Elles sont baissdes aujourd'hui plus 

jour. que jamais. 

That child has grown during his This plant is prodigiously grown. 

sickness. 

Cet enfant a cru durant sa raaladie. Cette plante est criie prodigieuse- 

ment. 

The water has much decreased since They have now decreased much. 

the drought. 

Les eaux ont beaucoup ddcrd depuis Elles sont maintenant bien d&cr&es. 

la secheresse. 

From that time he has declined from He has lost much of his credit. 

day to day. 

Depuis ce tems il a dicM de jour en II est bien dichu de son credit. 

jour. 

The price of corn has not dimin- He is, in fine, diminished one half. 

ished for the last six months. 

Le prix du ble n'a pas diminue" de- II est enfin diminut de moitie. 

puis six mois. 

He has grown much handsomer dur- One would say that she has grown 

ing his absence. handsome. 

II a fort embelli pendant son absence. On dirait qu'elle est embellie. 

This young man has grown much Surely, you are much grown. 

this year. 

Ce jeune homme a beaucoup grandi Surement vous etes bien grandie. 

cette annee. 

He seems to have grown younger See, how she has grown younger. 

since we saw him last. 

II paroit avoir rajeuni depuis que Voyez, comme elle est rajeunie. 

nous ne l'avons vu. 



272 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



This woman has grown old very Let us agree that we have grown 

fast. much older. 

Cette femme a vieilli tres vite. Convenons que nous sommes bien 

vieillis. 

1036. We shall now allude to some verbs whose significa- 
tion is entirely different when conjugated with to have or to be ; 
as, 

Accroitre. 

Accroitre is conjugated with to have, when meaning to in- 
crease, and is followed by a direct object ; and with to be, 
when it has no direct object ; as, 

With to have. With to be. 

He has increased his fortune very Their treasures are wonderfully in- 

rapidly. creased. 

II a accrit sa fortune tres rapide- Leurs tresors sont prodigieusement 

ment. accrus. 

They had increased their riches The waters of the Seine are consid- 



wonderfully. 

lis avaient accrti leurs richesses d' 
une maniere prodigieuse. 



erably increased since the last few 
days. 
Les eaux de la Seine sont considera- 
ment accrues depuis quel ques jours. 

His pride had increased with his 
power. 

Son orgueil Halt accrit par la puis- 
sance. 



1037. Jlccoucher. 

Accoucher, meaning to deliver a woman, takes the auxiliary 
verb to have ; and the auxiliary to be, when it signifies to be 
delivered of a child ; as, 

With to have. With to be. 

This midwife had delivered several This lady has been delivered of a 

ladies of our acquaintance. male infant. 

Cette sage femme avait accouche" plu- Cette dame est accouchie d'un enfant 

sieurs dames de notre connais- male. 

sance. 

Who, Madam, is the skilful man We shall go and see you when you 

who has delivered you of your are delivered of your child, 
child ? 

Quel est, Madame, l'habile homme Nous irons vous voir quand vous 

qui vous a accouchde 1 serez accoucMe. 

We say, equally well, 

This lady has been happily deliv- Cette femme a accouchi heureuse- 
ered, ment, 



VERB 



273 



because the act of being delivered is only looked upon, and 
not the individual or subject. 

1038. Cesser. 

The verb cesser takes the auxiliary to have, when it ex- 
presses an action ; and to be, when it expresses the situation of 
the subject ; as, 



With to have. 
He has ceased his work. 
II a cesse" son travail. 



With to be. 
The works have ceased. 
Les travaux sont cesses. 



The gout had ceased tormenting When the contagion ceased, they 

him. thanked God for it. 

La goutte avait cessi de le tourmen- Quand la contagion fut cesse" e on en 

ter. remercia Dieu. 



They have ceased complaining, 
lis ont cesse" de se plain dre. 



The storm has ceased at last. 
L'orage est enfin cessi. 

My fever has ceased (meaning that The fever has ceased (past entirely), 

the fever has ceased temporarily, 

but will certainly come back). 
Ma flevre a cesse. La fievre est cessSe. 

1039. Changer. 

Changer takes the auxiliary to have, when it means an ac- 
tion, and is followed by a direct object ; and to be, when ex- 
pressing the situation of the subject ; as, 

With to have. With to be. 

We have changed our clothes. This man is changed dreadfully. 



Nous avons change" nos habits. 



Cet homme est horriblement change". 



Why don't you change this water The wind is changed. 

into wine ? 
Pourquois ne changez-\ous pas cette Le vent est changi. 

eau en vin ? 



They have changed their money, 
lis ont changi leur argent. 

These instruments have changed 

their sound. 
Ces instruments ont change de son. 



She is changed so much that no- 
body would know her. 

Elle est. si changte qu'on a peine a 
la reconnaitre. 



1040. Commencer. 

This verb takes the auxiliary to have, when expressing an 
action ; and to be, when expressing the situation of the subject ; 



274 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



With to have. 
They have begun their work, 
lis ont commence" leurs travaux. 



With to be. 
The work is not begun yet. 
Les travaux ne sont pas encore com- 
mences. 



This child begins to know how to 

read. 
Cet enfant commence a savoir lire. 



The ball commenced 

o'clock. 
Le bal a commence a minuit 



The ball had already begun when 

we were introduced. 
Le bal 6tait de"ja commend quand 

nous fumes presentes. 

at twelve I shall have left the country when 
the year begins. 
J'aurai quitte la campagne quand 
1'annee sera commence'e. 



1041. Demeurer and Rest er. 

These two verbs take the auxiliary to have, when they mean 
to remain, to live for a certain time ; and to be, when meaning 
to remain permanently ; as, 



With to have. 
We have remained or lived five 

years in France. 
Nous avons demeure cinq ans en 

France. 

You have not remained long enough 

in the country. 
Vous xCavez pas demeure assez long- 

tems a la campagne. 

His wound remained eight days be- 
fore it was closed up. 

Sa blessure a demeuri huit jours a. 
se fermer. 

He remained in Paris but eight 

days. 
II vCa resti a Paris que huit jours. 

I have remained seven months with- 
out leaving my room. 

Vai resU sept mois sans sortir de 
ma chambre. 



With to le. 
He remained in Paris to finish his 

education. 
II est reste a, Paris pour y finir son 

education. 

After a hard contest, victory re- 
mained on our side. 

Apres un rude combat, la victoire 
est demeure" e de notre cote. 

He remained silent in the presence of 

the king. 
II est reste court, parlant devant le 

roi. 

Three thousand men remained on 

the field of battle. 
Trois mille hommes sont demeures 

sur le champ de battaille. 

They remained in Lyons to see the 

factories, 
lis sont restes a. Lyon pour y voir les 

manufactures. 



1042. Echapper. 

This verb takes the auxiliary to have, when expressing an 
action, and meaning eviter, to avoid ; ne pas Ure entendu, not 
to be heard ; ne pas etre apergu, not to be perceived ; n'etre 
pas compris, not to be understood ; s'etre soustrait, to have 
made an escape : and to be, when meaning se sauver, to run 
away, to escape, or laisser oiler, to escape, to slip ; as, 



VERB. 275 

With to have. With to be. 

He has escaped death. He has escaped from prison. 

II a 6chappe (evite) la mort. (Not II s'est ichappe de prison, 
used.) 

You would have escaped this He has escaped from the hands of 

trouble. the watch. 

Vous auriez £chapp6 (evite) cette II est ichappd des mains des gen- 

peine. (Not used.) darmes. 

What you have just said has es- Racine has made this fault through 

caped me. mistake. 

Ce que vous venez de dire m'a Cette faute est ichappee a Racine. 

echappi. 

The deer will have escaped the I had forgotten that name. 

dogs. 
Le cerf aura ichappe les chiens. Ce nom xa'Uait e"chapp6. 

(Not used.) 

This fault has escaped Voltaire. He has dropped his pen. 

Cette faute a echappi a Voltaire. La plume lui est ichappee. 

These sailors have escaped the This nonsense has slipped out of his 

storm. mouth. 

Ces matelots ont tchappi la tern- Cette sottise lui est echappe'e. 

pete. 

1043. Entrer and Sortir. 

Entrer and Sorlir take to have, when they have a direct ob- 
ject ; and to be, when they have but an indirect object ex- 
pressed or understood ; as, 

With to have. With to be. 

They have entered the wine in the When you came into my room, I was 

cellar. reading. 

On a entrt le vin dans la cave. Quand vous Ues entre dans ma 

chambre, je lisais. 
Have you brought up my horse ? We went out early this morning. 
«/2uez-vous sorti mon cheval ? Nous sommes sortis de bonne heure 

ce matin. 
They have brought you out of a sad As soon as they went out, we went 

trouble. to bed. 

On vous a sorti d'une mauvaise af- Aussitot qu'ils furent sortis nous al- 
faire. lames au lit. 

Rentrer and ressortir follow the same rule. 

1044. Expirer. 

Expirer takes to have, when it means, to breathe one's last, 
to expire ; and to be, when meaning to cease, to finish ; as, 

With to have. With to be. 

Jesus Christ expired on the cross. The vacations will be expired when 

I shall return to town. 
Jesus Christ a expire sur la croix. Les vacances seront expirees quand 

je retournerai a la ville. 



276 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

These soldiers breathed their last, Peace had not expired when hos- 

loading the enemy with impre- tilities again began, 
cations. 

Ces soldats ont expire en chargeant La paix n'etait pas expiree quand 

1'ennemi d'impreeations. la guerre recommenga. 

1045. Monter and Descendre. 

These verbs take to have when they are taken in an absolute 
meaning, or followed by a direct object, and to be, when they 
have an indirect object ; as, 

With to have. With to be. 

He has ascended three hours to He was raised by degrees to the 

reach the top of the mountain. post he occupies. 

II a monte" trois heures pour arriver II est monte par degres au poste 

au sommet de la montagne. qu'il occupe. 

He had got up a very high flight We should have ridden on horse- 

of stairs. back. 

II a monte un escalier tres eleve. Nous serions montes a cheval. 

He has come down to reach this The red has mounted to his face. 

place. 
II a descendu pour venir ici. Le rouge lui est monte a la figure. 

They have descended the stairs Have they come down from their 

quicker than they liked. room? 

lis ont descendu les escaliers plus Sont-ils descendus de leur cham- 

vite qu'ils ne l'auraient voulu. bre ? 

Peace has come down to the earth. 
La paix est descendue sur la terre. 

They came down stairs quicker 
than they chose. 

Us sont descendus plus vite qu'ils 
ne l'auraient voulu. 

We say also, in another meaning ; 

We mounted our guard. We have come off guard. 

Nous avons monte 1 notre garde. Nous avons descendu la garde. 

Have you wound up the clock? They have taken down that pic- 
ture. 
Jlvez-vous monU la pendule ? On a descendu ce tableau. 

He rode a splendid horse. The barometer has fallen a little. 

II montait un superbe cheval. Le barometre a descendu un peu. 

1046. Passer. 

This verb takes to have when it expresses the action of 
passing from one place to another, with such circumstances 
as to indicate motion, and also when meaning to hand a thing, 



VERB 



277 



to be admitted or received, but it takes to be when the action of 
passing is entirely accomplished, and in some idiomatical ex- 
pressions which will be found below ; as, 

With to have. With to be. 

We passed by Lyons. 

Nous avons passe par Lyon. 



The ambassador has passed through 

Vienna. 
L'ambassadeur est 

Vienne. 



passe par 



He has passed to America where They passed over into England 

he resides. ten years ago. 

II a passe en Amerique ou il re- lis sont passes en Angleterre ily a 



dix ans. 

The troops have passed. 
Les troupes sont passees. 

Do you know if their blood has 
passed pure to them as well as 
their nobility ? 



side. 

Our friends have passed the Alps. 
Nos amis ont passe les Alpes. 

We have passed through Cham- 
pagne after having crossed the 
Meuse. 

Nous avons passe 1 par la Champagne Savez-vous si leur sang est passe 
apres avoir passe" la Meuse. chez eux aussi pur que leur no- 

blesse. 

The empire of the Assyrians has Our fine days are passed. 

passed into the hands of the 

Medes. 
L'empire des Assyriens a passe Nos beaux jours sont passes. 

aux Medes. 

I have passed (handed) this child These silks are out of fashion. 

through the window. 
J'ai passe" cet enfant par la fenetre. Ces soies sont passees de mode. 

This word has passed (has become This tapestry is faded. 

usual, or has not been remarked). 
Ce mot a passe. Cette tapisserie est passee. 

The fair is over. 
La foire est passee. 

This expression has become a 

proverb. 
Cette expression est passee en pro- 

verbe. 

This word is out of use. 
Ce mot est passi. 

1047. Perir. 
This verb takes to have when we use with it the circumstan- 
ces attending the fact expressed by its meaning ; but it takes to 
be when the time or circumstances attending the fact of perish- 
ing are not mentioned ; as, 
24 



278 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



With to have. With to be. 

The army perished from cold and This good mother went to meet her 

hunger. children, but she perished. 

UarmAt a p6ri de /aim et de froid. Cette tendre mere etait partie pour 

rejoindre ses enfants, mais elle 
est p6rie. 

These wretches perished in the What has become of the prisoners 
middle of the battle. with whom our prisons were 

crowded ? they perished. 
Ces malhereux ont piri au milieu Que sont devenus les prisonniers 
de la battaille. dont nos prisons etaient pleines ? 

lis sont peris. 

1048. Sonner, 
Sonner takes to have when it signifies to produce a sound, 
cause a sound to be produced, and it takes to be when meaning 
to be announced by a sound ; as, 



With to have. 
The bells have rung. 
Les cloches ont sonne. 

The clock has struck five. 

La pendule a sonne cinq heures. 

He has not said one word. 
II n'a pas sonne 1 le mot. 

This piece of money has sounded, 
Cette piece d'argent a sonne. 

This sentence sounded well. 
Cette periode a bien sonne 1 . 

The dinner has rung. 
Le diner a sonne. 

To ring for a servant. 
Sonner un domestique. 

To play the horn. 
Sonner de la trompe, &c. 



With to be. 
The mass has rang. 
La messe est sonnee. 

Three o'clock struck while we sat 

at the table. 
Trois heures etaient sonnies quand 

nous nous mimes a table. 

Vespers will ring before the end 

of the repast. 
Les vepres seront sonnies avant la 

fin du repas. 



AGREEMENT OF THE VERB WITH ITS SUBJECT. 



1049. We have seen, that to affirm is the principal function 
of the verb. We call subject or nominative the word which 



VERB. 279 

represents the person or thing which performs the action of the 
verb, or is in the situation expressed by it. The attribute of 
the verb is the word which modifies the fact of existence ex- 
pressed by the verb ; in other words, the subject expresses the 
person or thing about which we affirm something, and the attri- 
bute is the result of this affirmation. 

1050. The subject is always represented by a noun or a 
pronoun, and the attribute by an adjective joined to a verb, or 
implied in that verb ; w 7 hen we say, virtue is amiable, the adjec- 
tive amiable, is joined to the verb to be, and this verb express- 
es the connexion we w 7 ish to establish between virtue and the 
qualification of amiability ; but if we say, Pierre vit, Peter 
lives, the adjective is implied in the verb, vit, lives, since this 
verb signifies, est vivant, is living. 

This decomposition of the verb may be performed for all 
the verbs ; the only exception is in the verb etre, to be, when 
it does not signify exister, to exist. 

1051. It is always very easy to find out what is the subject 
of a verb, by applying to that verb the question, qui est ce qui 1 
who ? the answer to the question is the nominative. When we 
say Pierre vit, Peter lives, if we ask, qui est-ce qui vitl who 
lives ? the answer, Pierre, Peter, shows that Peter is the 
subject. 



Pule First. 

1052. The subject, whether a noun or a pronoun, is gener- 
ally placed before the verb ; as, 

We love reading. Man is never pleased with his fate. 

Nous aimons la lecture. Vhomme n'est jamais content de 

son sort. 

Exceptions. 

1053. 1st. In interrogative sentences, if the subject be a 
pronoun, it always goes after the verb ; as, 

Will you give me this book ? Shall we go home to-morrow ? 

Voulez-wms me donner ce livre ? Retournerons-nous demain a la 

maison ? 



280 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

If the subject be a noun and be employed alone without the 
assistance of the personal pronoun, it is placed after the verb ; 
as, 

What would have been the fate of Quelle eut ete la destinSe de la 
France if Napoleon had died on France si Napoleon fut mort sur 
the throne ? le trone ? 

But the subject, being a noun, keeps its place before the 
verb, if the interrogation is to be made by the corresponding 
pronoun ; as, 

Is France happier now than she La France est-dle plus heureuse 
was formerly ? aujourd'hui qu'autrefois ? 

When the verb in interrogative sentences, being followed by 
the pronouns, il, die, on, has for its last letter a vowel, in order 
to avoid a disagreeable sound which would be shocking to the 
ear, the letter t is placed between the verb and the pronoun ; 
as, 

Does he arrive ? Shall she come ? Do you like thieves? 

Arrive-t-il ? Viendra-t-elle ? Aime-t-on les coquins ? 

The interrogation in the first person singular, being made by 
placing the pronoun je after the verb, produces, sometimes, 
such disagreeable sounds to the ear, that it becomes necessary 
to change the natural disposition of the words ; thus, 

Do I sleep ? Do I run ? Do I lie ? 

Dors je ? Cours-je ? Ments-je ? 

would be intolerable ; and we are compelled to say, 

Est-ce que je dors ? Est-ce que je cours ? Est-ce que je ments ? 
Is it that I sleep ? Is it that I run ? Is it that I lie ? 

1054. 2d. The subject is also placed after the verb, when 
the verb is employed in a quotation ; as, 

Be happy, said he. I die innocent, said Louis XVI., on 

the scaffold. 
Soyez heureux, dit-il. Je meurs innocent, dit Louis XVL, 

sur Vichaffaud. 

1055. 3d. The same disposition is observed, when, ex- 
pressing a wish, we make use of the subjunctive mood ; as, 

May the people be convinced, that Puissent les peuples se convaincre 
there is no greater scourge than qu'il n'y a pas de plus grand 
a revolution ! fleaux que les Revolutions ! 



VERB. 281 

When the subjunctive is used to express quand meme, 
though, and a conditional ; as, 

Though the universe should crum- Did Punivers s'ecrouler a ses pieds 
ble at his feet he would not be il n'en seroit pas £mu. 
moved. 

The natural construction of these two sentences should be ; 

Je souhaite que touts les peuples soient convaincus, &c. 
Quand meme l'univers s'ecrouleroit, &c. 

But the other form is more energetic and animated. 

1056. 4th. The nominative or subject is still placed after 
the verb, when this verb has for its object or regimen a pro- 
noun which precedes it ; as, 

The news brought by the messen- La nouvelle ^w'apporta le courier 

ger was good. est bonne. 

The man who was killed by your L'homme que tua votre ami etait 

friend was my son. mon fils. 

1057. 5th. The nominative should also be placed after the 
verb, in impersonal sentences ; as, 

A great calamity has happened to II m'est arrive un grand malheur. 
me. 

1058. 6th. When the sentence begins with the words, tel, 
such, ainsi, thus ; as, 

Such was the fury of the soldiers Telle etait la fureur du soldat que 

that nothing could stop them. rien ne put l'arreter. 

Thus ended this bloody affray. Ainsi finit cette sanglante tragidie. 

But this transposition of words can only take place when 
the verb has no regimen. 

1059. In fine, we must place the subject after the verb when 
that subject is followed by a number of words which belong to 
it. 

1060. Sometimes this exception to the general rule is abso- 
lute, and sometimes a matter of taste. It is absolute when the 
words which belong to the subject form an incidental proposi- 
tion, which, by its extent, would deter the mind from the con- 
nexion existing between the verb and its subject, as in the fol- 
lowing sentence : 

24* 



282 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



There, in the midst of prairies, en- 
amelled with flowers, are creep- 
ing, in winding mazes, a thousand 
small streams, which disperse 
everywhere a pure and limpid 
water. 



La, au milieu de prairies emaillees 
de fleurs, serpentent mille petits 
ruisseaux qui distribuent parlout 
une eau pure et limpide. 



Or when we wish to avoid a construction which would seem 
heavy and wanting in harmony ; as, 

Did you see the sacrifice where Vites-vous le sacrifice ou coula le 
the blood of so many victims sang de tant de victimes ? 
ran? 

The construction, ou le sang de tant de victimes coula, would 
be flat and deprived of the harmony required by the ear. 

1 06 1 . This rule is a matter of taste when we wish to awake 
the attention on a subject by an unexpected and bold transi- 
tion ; as, 



In fine, to the honor of France, a 
man had been admitted in the 
government, who was greater by 
his mind and virtues than by the 
honors conferred on him. 



Enfin, pour l'honneur de la France, 
etait entre dans l'administration 
des affaires publiques, un homme 
plus grand encore par ses vertus 
et par son esprit que par ses di- 
gniUs. 



Rule Second. 



1062. The verb must be in the same person and number as 
its subject or nominative ; as, 

I did not know who I was, where I 

was, whence I came. 
O nature ! how beautiful thou art 

in thy amiable simplicity! 
Virtue is the most precious among 

the gifts of Heaven. 
Faith and reason equally prove the 

truth of this. 



Je ne savais pas qui fetais, ou 

fttais, d'ouje venais. 
Oh ! nature ! que tu es belle dans 

ton aimable simplicite ! 
La vertu est le plus precieux des 

dons du Ciel. 
La foi et la raison prouvent egale- 

ment cette verite. 



In the first sentence etais is in the first person singular, be- 
cause je, personal pronoun nominative, is singular and of the 
first person. 

In the second, es is in the second person singular, because tu 
is in the same person and number, &c. 



VERB. 283 

Exceptions. 

1063. 1st. Although the verb has two nominatives in the 
singular, this verb remains in this number if the two subjects 
are united by the conjunction or, ou, because the nature of 
this conjunction is, to exclude one or the other of the nouns 
from acting in common upon the verb ; thus we say, 

Seduction or terror carried him to La seduction ou la terreur Yentraina 
the side of the rebels. du cote des rebelles. 

1064. But if of the nominatives, separated by or, one be 
singular and the other plural, the verb must agree with the 
last ; as, 

The credit given by this dignity, or Le credit que donne cette place, ou 
the riches which are attached to les richesses qui y sont attachees, 
it, make him anxious to get it. la lui font rechercher. 

Or, 

Les richesses qui sont attachees a cette place, ou le credit qu'elle donne, la 
lui fait rechercher. 

1065. When the nominatives, joined by ou, or, are both 
pronouns of the third person singular, the verb is always used 
in the singular ; as, 

He or she shall come with me. II ou elle viendra avec moi. 

1066. But if these pronouns are of different persons, the 
verb takes the plural ; as, 

You or I shall do it. Vous ou moi le ferons. 

You or she has done it. Vous ou elle Vavez fait. 

1067. 2d. The same exception is observed when the two 
subjects are united by the conjunctions comme, aussi que, aussi 
Men que, de meme que, as well as, and other similar expres- 
sions ; but in these cases the verb agrees with the first of the 
two subjects ; as, 

The king means well, as well as his Le roi aussi Men que son ministre 

minister. veut le bien. 

His honesty, as well as his other Son honnetete, autant que ses autres 

high qualities, make him respect- grandes qualites, \efait respecter. 

able. 

106S. 3d. The verb is still used in the singular, when, 
with several nominatives, singular or plural, an expression is 
used after them which repeats them all in one word ; as all, 



2S4 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

tout, that, ce, cela, ceci, nothing, rien, &c. ; or when the 
conjunction but, mais, is placed before the last of the subjects 
in the singular ; as, 

Fortune, dignity, honors, all disap- Biens, dignites, honneurs, tout dis- 

pear in death. parait a la mort. 

Amusements, conversation, plays, Amusements, conversations, spec- 
nothing could divert him from his tacles, rien ne peut l'arracher a sa 
grief. douleur. 

Perfidies, conflagrations, massacres, Perfidies, incendies, massacres, ce 

are but a feeble picture of the n'est la. qu'une faible esquisse 

horrors which took place. des horreurs qui ont eu lieu. 

Not only all his riches and dignities, Non seulement toutes ses richesses 

but all his virtue vanished. et toutes ses dignites, mais toute 

sa vertu s'evanouit. 

1069. In poetry none of these rules and exceptions are 
absolutely required, and our best writers are full of examples 
of these licenses, but they must be regarded as mere privileges 
attached to genius, and must not induce others to imitate them. 
Thus we find in Boileau ; 

On dit que ton front jaune et ton teint sans couleur 
Perdit en ce moment son antique paleur. 

And in Racine ; 

Que ma foi, mon amour, mon honneur, y consente. 
And in Delille ; 

Et si V ombre, la paioc, la UberU, mHnspire. 

The place of the subjects, in regard to the verb, does not 
exercise any influence upon the agreement of the verb with 
them ; in this phrase, for instance, 

He represented to me in what dis- II me representait l'accablement oil 

tress he was with a large family, le mettaient unefamille nombreuse, 

a lawsuit, and a malicious prose- un prods, et une michante affaire. 
cution brought against him. 

Although the nominatives are placed after the verb, it would 
be a fault to place this verb in the singular. 

1070. 4. We have already, in the article entitled Indefinite 
Pronouns, seen how the verb agrees with ni Pun ni Vautre, 
neither the one nor the other, but when the conjunction ni, 
instead of being used with a pronoun, is used with nouns, the 
verb following always takes the plural ; as, 

Neither gold nor grandeur make us Ni Vor ni la grandeur ne nous 
happy. rendent heureux. 



VERB. 285 

1071. There has been a long controversy among gramma- 
rians to decide how the verb ought to agree in the following 
sentence ; 

He was one of those who contrib- II fut un de ceux qui contribua, or 
uted the most efficiently to the contribuerent,le plus efficacement 
ruin of the country. a la ruine de la patrie. 

Some say that there is no fault in adopting indifferently one 
or the other of these two modes. Some pretend that the 
verb must agree with one, un ; but let us see what is the true 
construction of this phrase ; it signifies that he was one among 
those who did contribute to the ruin of the country ; conse- 
quently it was more than one who contributed ; and thus con- 
structed, the sentence shows clearly that the verb is acted upon 
by more than one person, and should take the plural. 



Third Rule. 

1072. When the nominative of the verb is a collective 
partitive noun, followed by of, de, the verb takes the plural, 
if the noun which follows de, of, is in the plural, and remains 
singular if that noun is in the singular. 

We call collective partitive, nouns similar to the following ; 

Most, La plupart. 

An infinity, Une infinite. 

A crowd, Une foule. 

A multitude, Une multitude. 

A number, Un nombre. 

The greatest part, La plus grande partie. 

A sort, Une sorte, &c. 

To which we must add words expressing quantity ; as, 

A few. Peu, 

Many. Beaucoup, 

Some (enough). Assez, 

Less. Moins, 

More. Plus, 

Too many. Trop, 

All, every. Tout, 

How many. Combien que, 

Most men are too prompt in their La plupart des hommes sont trop 

judgments. prompts dans leurs jugements. 

A crowd, an infinity, a multitude of Une foule, une infinite", une multitude 

young Phenicians, were perform- de jeunes Phtniciens dansaient les 

ing the dances of their country. danses de leur pays. 



286 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

So many years of habit were chains Tant d'anntes d'habitude itaient des 
of iron, which had tied me to chaines de fer qui me liaient a 
those two men. ces deux hommes. 

Singular. 
Most part of the world are equally La plupart du monde est egalement 

apt to receive impressious. facile a recevoir des impressions. 

Was ever so much beauty crowned ? Jamais tant de beaute" fut elle cou- 

ronnee ? 

1073. The words, an infinity, the most part, une infinite, la 
plupart , employed by themselves, govern the verb in the 
plural ; 

An infinity think, Une infinite pensent, 

The most part are of this opinion, La plupart sont de cette opinion, 

because the sentences in which they are used are elliptical, 
and imply the idea of a plural noun after them, preceded by 
de, of. 

1074. Collective nouns, not partitive, follow the general 
rule of nouns, and are not plural in all cases, as they are in 
English ; thus we say equally well, 

The people of the South of France, Le peuple du midi de la France, or 

or of the Southern Provinces of des Provinces Meridionales de la 

France, are quick, passionate, France, est v if, ardent, emporte! 
and irritable ! 

1075. But there are cases in which the verb ought to be 
put in the plural, and this is the case, when the mind is more 
strongly impressed by the idea represented by the plural noun 
preceded by of, than by the collective noun in the singular ; 
thus we say, 

One half of the trees which I have La moitie des arbres qui j'ai plantes 

planted are dead, sont morts, 

The little strength which was left to Le peu de forces qui restaient a ce 

this patient is not lost, malade ne sont pas perdues, 

Every sort of fruit is not good to Toute sorte de fruits ne sont pas 

eat, bons a manger, 

with the verbs in the plural, because the mind is principally 
struck by the idea of the arbres, forces, fruits, which are in 
the plural, and not by the collectives moitie, le peu, toute sorte, 
used in the singular. 

1076. But we say, with the singular, 

The great number of carriages Le grand nombre de voitures arrSta 

stopped our progress, notre marche, 

The quantity of grains of sand are La quantitt des grains de sable est 

innumerable, innombrable, 



VERB. 287 

because what strikes the mind is not carriages nor grains, but 
the number of them, and that number, being expressed in the 
singular, commands the verb in the same number. 

1077. Impersonal verbs are never affected by the number 
of their real nominatives ; as, 

A multitude of soldiers made their II parut une multitude de soldats. 
appearance. 



OF THE REGIMEN OR OBJECT OF VERBS. 

1078. A word is said to be a regimen or object, when it 
depends immediately on another word, and restrains its signifi- 
cation. 

The regimen or object of a verb is, then, a word which 
depends on that verb and restrains its signification. 

1079. A word may restrain the signification of a verb 
directly or indirectly. 

1080. A word restrains the signification of a verb directly 
when it follows the verb immediately, without the help of a 
preposition, expressed or understood, and it is then called the 
direct regimen, or object. 

1081. A word restrains the signification of a verb indirectly, 
when it follows it, being preceded by a preposition, expressed 
or understood ; the prepositions generally used in such cases, 
are de, of, and a, to. 

1082. We discover the direct object of a verb by apply- 
ing to it the question, whom 9 qui ? or ivhat 9 quoi ? the 
answer is the direct object. When we say, / love ; whom 9 
God ; J'aime ; qui ? Dieu. 1 study ; what? Natural phi- 
losophy ; J'etudie ; quoi ? La physique ; the words Dieu, 
God, la physique, natural philosophy, are the direct objects of 
the verbs faime, fetudie, I love, I study. 

1083. The indirect object of a verb is discovered by ask- 
ing the questions, de qui, de quoi, a qui, a quoi, of whom, of 
what, to whom, to what ; the answer to these questions shows 
the indirect object ; as, J complain ; of whom 9 of you ; Je 
me plains ; de qui ? de vous. / repent; of what 9 of my 



288 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

fault ; Je me repens, de quoi ? de ma faute. / speak ; to 
iohom9 to Peter; Je parle ; a qui ? a Pierre. J yield; to 
what 9 to my grief ; Je succombe ; a quoi ? a ma douleur. 
The words vous, Pierre, faute, douleur, are the indirect ob- 
jects of the verbs je me plains, je parle, je me repens, je suc- 
combe. 

1084. A verb may have for its regimen three sorts of 
words, a verb in the infinitive, a noun, or a pronoun. 

But before examining the rules which belong to each of 
these three cases, let us see which among them may be used 
with the different sorts of verbs. 

1085. We have already seen that the word, which, with an 
active verb, answers to the questions, whom 9 or what ? is 
called the direct object of that verb ; but, besides this direct 
object, some active verbs may have another object preceded 
generally by the prepositions a, to, or de, of, which, then, is 
the indirect object of those verbs ; as, 

I have given a book to his brother. J'ai donne un livre a son frere. 
He has accused his sister of impru- II a accuse sa sozur d' imprudence. 
dence. 

1086. There are also verbs which, besides their direct ob- 
ject, may have two indirect ones ; one preceded by the prep- 
osition of, and the other by to ; as, 

I gave him a lesson to write. Je lui donnai une leqon a derive. 

The word lui stands for a lui, so that lui and ecrire are 
both indirect objects of the verb donnai, and lepon its direct 
object. 

1087. Passive verbs take the preposition de, of, and par, 
by, before their indirect object ; as, 

The mice are eaten by the cat. La souris est mangee par le chat. 

A child good and docile is loved by Un enfant doux et docile est aime de 
his parents. ses parents. 

Remarks. 

1088. In passive verbs, the preposition 'par, by, is never 
used with the word Dieu, God ; thus, we say, 

God will punish the wicked. Les mechants seront punis de Dieu. 



VERB. 289 

1089. Passive verbs are often used without a regimen ; as, 
Rome was plundered several times. Rome fut plusieurs fois saccag6e. 

1090. When a passive verb is followed by a noun preceded 
by the preposition de, of; par, by, is used with the regimen or 
object of that noun ; as, 

Your conduct will be approved gen- Votre conduite sera approuvie d'une 
erally by those who are wise and commune voix par les personnes 
enlightened. sages et eclairees. 

1091. Some neuter verbs have no object; as, dor mir, to 

sleep ; but the greatest number are followed by the preposition 

a or de ; as, 

All excesses are injurious to the Tout genre d'exces nuisent a la 

health. sante. 

He is slandering everybody. H mtdit de tout le monde. 

1092. There are some which govern both of these preposi- 
tions before two indirect objects ; as, 

He has inquired about you of your II a demande de vos nouvelles a vo- 
brother. tre frere. 

1093. Reflective verbs have for their regimen or object the 
pronouns me, te, se, nous, and vous, myself, thyself, himself, 
herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, and themselves. 

These pronouns are sometimes the direct, and sometimes 

the indirect objects of those verbs. They are direct in the 

following sentences : 

I flatter myself. Je me flatte (or Je flatte moi) . 

Thou lovest thyself. Tu ifaimes (tu aimes toi). 

We love ourselves. Nous nous aimons (nous aimons 

nous). 

They are indirect in the following : 

We make ourselves a law of silence. Nous nous faisons une loi du silence 

(nous faisons a nous). 

You do honor to yourselves. Vous vous faites honneur (vous 

faites honneur a vous). 



Of the Verb as a Regimen or Object. 

1094. A verb in the infinitive limits the signification of an- 
other verb, or is its object or regimen, either without the help 
of a preposition, or with the prepositions a, to, or de, of. 
25 



290 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

1095. Some verbs never take a preposition before the in- 
finitive which they govern : such are, aller, to go ; aimer 
mieux, to prefer ; falloir, to be necessary ; envoyer, to send ; 
daigner, to deign, &c. ; as, 

He goes to seek the book you want. II va chercher le livre dont vous avez 

besoin. 
Let the justice of the king pass. Laissez passer la justice du roi. 

We must set out. llfautpartir, &c. 

1096. Some require the preposition of before the infinitive 
which they govern ; as, achever, to achieve ; affecter, to af- 
fect ; conseiller, to advise ; craindre, to fear ; promettre, to 
promise, &c. : 

Are you sure to find him ? Etes vous assuH de le trouver. 

Do you not fear to go alone ? Ne craignez-vous pas Waller seul. 

Do you promise me to change ? Me promettez-vous de changer ? &c. 

1097. An immense number take the preposition d, to, be- 
fore the infinitive governed by them ; as, avoir, to have ; aimer, 
to love ; consentir, to consent ; parvenir, to succeed, &c. : 

I have to write a letter. Vai a ecrire une lettre. 

I love hunting. Yaime a chasser. 

I consent to make the first step. Je consens a faire le premier pas, &c. 

Foreigners, then, must resort to a good dictionary as a guide, 
and, through the illustrations contained in it, get the habit of 
knowing surely how to express themselves according to cir- 
cumstances. 

However, in order to facilitate this difficult and barren sub- 
ject, we will give an abridged list of verbs generally used with 
or without the prepositions to and of before the infinitive gov- 
erned by them. 



1098. Of Verbs governing, without a Preposition, the Infini- 
tive which follows them. 



Aimer mieux 


to like better 


Confesser 


to confess 


Aller 


to go 


Considerer 


to consider 


Amrmer 


to affirm 


Croire 


to believe 


Appercevoir 


to perceive 


Daigner 


to deign 


Assurer 


to assure 


Declarer 


to declare 


Avoir beau 


to be in vain 


Deposer 


to depose 


Avouer 


to own 


Desirer 


to desire 


Compter 


to intend 


Devoir 


to owe 



VERB, 



291 



Ecouter 


to listen 


Pouvoir 


to be able 


Entendre 


to hear 


Rapporter 


to report 


Envoyer 


to send 


Reconnaitre 


to recognize 


Epier 


to espy 


Regarder 


to look at 


Esperer 


to hope 


Retourner 


to return 


Faire 


to make 


Savoir 


to know 


Falloir 


to be necessary 


S'imaginer 


to imagine 


Laisser 


to leave 


Sembler 


to seem 


Nier 


to deny 


Se trouver 


to find 


Observer 


to observe 


Souhaiter 


to wish 


Oser 


to dare 


Soutenir 


to maintain 


Ouir A 


to hear 


Temoigner 


to testify 


Paraitre 


to appear 


Valoir mieux 


to be better 


Penser 


to think 


Venir 


to come 


Pretendre 


to pretend 


Voir 


to see 


Publier 


to publish 


Vouloir 


to be willing 



Although this list is far from being complete, it contains the 
verbs which are generally used before infinitives without a prep- 
osition, and may be of great service to the student. 



1099. Of Verbs governing the Preposition de, of, before the 
Infinitive ivhich follows them. 



Abstenir 

Abuser 

Achever 

Affecter 

Affliger 

Apprehender 

Approuver 

Arreter 

Attendrir 

Attrister 

Avertir 

Avoir pitie 

Blamer 

Censurer 

Cesser 

Choisir 

Chagriner 

Charger 

Commander 

Conclure 

Conjurer 

Conseiller 

Contraindre 

Convaincre 

Convenir 

Craindre 

Decharger 

Decider 



to abstain 
to abuse 
to achieve 
to affect 
to afflict 
to apprehend 
to approve of 
to stop 
to soften 
to grieve 
to warn 
to have pity 
to blame 
to censure 
to cease 
to choose 
to vex 
to charge 
to command 
to conclude 
to conjure 
to advise 
to constrain 
to convince 
to agree to 
to fear 
to discharge 
to decide on 



Decourager 


to discourage 


Defendre 


to defend 


Deg outer 


to disgust 


Deliberer 


to deliberate 


Demander 


to demand, or to 




beg as a favor 


Desesperer 


to despair 


Desoler 


to make one mad 


Determiner 


to determine 


Detourner 


to deter from 


Differer 


to differ 


Dire 


to say 


Disconvenir 


to disagree 


Dispenser 


to dispense 


Dissuader 


to dissuade 


Divertir 


to divert 


Ecrire 


to write 


Edifier 


to edify 


Effrayer 


to frighten 


Embarrasser 


to embarrass, to 




puzzle 


Empecher 


to hinder 


Enjoindre 


to enjoin 


Entreprendre 


to undertake 


Epouvanter 


to terrify 


Essayer 


to try 


Etre d 'accord 


to concur in 


Excuser 


to excuse 



292 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



Enrager 

Etre surpris 

Exempter 

Exiger 

Feindre 

Finir 

Forcer 

Fremir 

Gener 

Gronder 

Hair 

Hesiter 

Inspirer 

Jouir 

Juger a, propos 

Jurer 

Justifier 

Louer 

Mander 

Manquer 

Medire 

Mediter 

Menacer 

Meriter 

Mettre hors d'etat 

Murmurer 

Negliger 

Notifier 

Offrir 

Omettre 

Ordonner 

Oublier 

Pardonner 

Parler 

Permettre 

Persuader 

Plaindre 

Pleurer 

Prescrirc 

Presser 

Presurner 

Prevenir 

Prevenir 

Prier 

Priver 

Professer 

Profiter 

Proraettre 

Proposer 

Punir 

Reeommender 

Recompenser 

Redouter 

Refuser 

Rejouir 

Remercier 

Reprendre 

Reprimander 



to enrage 

to stare 

to exempt 

to require 

to feign 

to finish 

to compel 

to shudder at 

to make uneasy 

to scold 

to hate 

to hesitate 

to inspire 

to enjoy 

to find proper 

to swear 

to justify 

to praise 

to write word 

to want 

to slander 

to meditate 

to threaten 

to merit 

to disable from 

to murmur at 

to neglect 

to notify 

to offer 

to omit 

to order 

to forget' 

to pardon 

to speak 

to permit 

to persuade 

to pity 

to cry for 

to prescribe 

to press 

to presume 

to caution against 

to apprize of 

to pray 

to deprive 

to profess 

to improve 

to promise 

to propose 

to punish 

to recommend 

to reward 

to dread 

to refuse 

to rejoice 

to thank 

to reprove 

to reprimand 



Reproacher 

Resoudre 

Retenir 

Rougir 

Scandaliser 

S'abstenir 

S'accommoder 

S'acquitter 

S'affliger 

S'amouracher 

S'appercevoir 

S'approcher 

S'attrister 

S'aviser 

Se chagriner 

Se charger 

Se consoler 

Se defier 

Se demettre 

Se depecher 

Se desaccoutumer 

Se deshabituer 

Se desister 

S'edifier 

S'efTrayer 

S'emanciper 

S'emparer 

S'empresser 

S'ennuyer 

S'enorguillir 

S'etonner 

S 'exempter 

Se faire gloire 

Se flatter 

Se garder 

Se hater 

S'impatienter 

S'indigner 

S 'in former 

S'ingerer 

S'inquieter 
Se meler 
Se moquer 
Se piquer 
Se piquer de 

Se plaindre 
Se precipiter 

Se presser 
Se ranger 
Se rebuter 
Se rejouir 
Se repentir 
Se ressouvenir 
Se retenir 



to reproach' 

to resolve upon 

to keep from 

to blush at 

to scandalize 

to abstain 

to make, to shift 

to perform 

to grieve 

to fall in love 

to perceive 

to approach 

to be sorrowful 

to think 

to grieve one's self 

to take charge of 

to comfort one's 

self 
to mistrust 
to resign 
to make haste 
to leave off doing 
<< t< 

to desist 

to edify one's self 

to get frightened 

to take liberty 

to take possession 

to hasten 

to grow weary 

to grow proud 

to be surprised 

to free one's self 

to glory in 

to flatter one's self 

to take care not to 

to haste 

to grow impatient 

to be indignant 

to inquire 

to take upon one's 

self 
to fret 

to meddle with 
to laugh at 
to pretend 
to pride one's self 

on 
to complain 
to overhasten one's 

self 
to hasten 
to revenge 
to be disheartened 
to rejoice at 
to repent 
to remember 
to keep one's self 



VERB. 



293 



Se retracer 
Se saisir 
Se scandaliser 
Se servir 
Se soucier 
Se vanter 
Sommer 
Soupgonner 
Suffire 



to remember 

to seize 

to be offended at 

to use 

to care 

to boast 

to summon 

to suspect 

to suffice 



Suggerer 

Supplier 

Surprendre 

Susciter 

Tacher 

Tromper 

Troubler 

Tourmenter 

User 



to suggest 
to beseech 
to surprise 
to put in mind 
to try 
to deceive 
to trouble 
to torment 
to use 



1100. Of Verbs governing the Preposition 
Infinitive which follows them. 

Acceder to accede Obeir 

Accoutumer to accustom Obvier 

Adherer to adhere Pardonner 

Admettre to admit Parvenir 

Aider to help Passer son temps 

Aimer to love Penser 

Apprendre to learn Perdre 

Appreter to afford matter Persister 

Arriver to arrive Plaire 

Assigner to summon Porter 

Autoriser to authorize Pourvoir 

Chercher to seek Pousser 

Comdaraner to condemn Prendre plaisir 

Convier to invite Presenter 

Contribuer to contribute Pretendre 

Condescendre to condescend Proceder 

Compatir to compassionate Provoquer 

Con sister to consist Regarder 

Consentir to consent Renoncer 

Contraindre to constrain Resister 

Depenser to spend Rester 

Destiner to design Rever 

Disposer to dispose S'abandonner 

Donner to give S'abaisser 

Dresser to train up S'abuser 

Demeurer to stay S'accorder 

Deplaire to displease S 'accoutumer 

Desobeir to disobey S'acharner 

Eclairer to light S'aguerrir 

Employer to employ S'amuser 

Encourager to encourage S'appliquer 

Enhardir to embolden S'appreter 

Enseigner to teach S'arreter 

Exciter to excite S'assujettir 

Exercer to exercise S'astreindre 

Engager to induce S'attacher 

Inciter to incitej S'attendre 

Incliner to incline S'avilir 

Limiter to limit Se complaire 

Montrer to show Se decider 

Nuire to hurt Se deplaire 



a, to, before the 



to obey 
to obviate 
to forgive 
to arrive 

to spend one's time 
to think 
to lose 
to persist 
to please 
to induce 
to provide 
to excite 
to delight 
to present 
to pretend 
to proceed 
to provoke 
to hesitate 
to renounce 
to resist 
to remain 
to think 

to indulge [self 
to humble one's 
to be mistaken 
to agree 
to accustom 
to be enraged 
to inure one's self 
to be amused 
to apply one's self 
to prepare 
to stand upon 
to subject 
to submit 
to give one's self to 
to expect 
to vilify- 
to please one's self 
to resolve 
to be displeased in 



25 



294 



FRENCH GRAMMAR, 



Se disposer 


to prepare one's self 


Se plaire 


to please one's self 


Se determiner 


to resolve 


Se preparer 


to prepare one's 


S'endurcir 


to inure one's self 




self 


S'engager 


to bind one's self 


Se resoudre 


to resolve upon 


S'exposer 


to expose one's self 


Se retrancher 


to confine one's self 


Se fier 


to trust 


Servir 


to serve 


S'habituer 


to use one's self 


Song-er 


to think 


Se livrer 


to give one's self to 


Subvenir 


to relieve 


Se mettre 


to go to 


Suffire 


to suffice 


Se mettre 


to give one's self to 


Tendre 


to aim 


S'obstiner 


to be obstinately 


Travailler 


to work 




bent 


Venir and > 
Revenir 5 


to come to 


S'occuper 


to spend one's time 


to come again to 


S'opiniatrer 


to be obstinate 


Viser 


to aim 



These lists ought to be sufficient ; for, as we have said, it is 
impossible to establish rules, so as to fix the use of the preposi- 
tions. There are verbs which govern three or four of them, 
changing thus their signification to obey the wants of the mind ; 
we repeat here, that a good dictionary is the only guide in this 
part of the study ; but in order to throw some light upon so 
difficult a matter, we will give some illustrations of the most 
useful verbs contained in the above lists ; they will be a sort of 
guide for the student, and will show him how he must make use 
of his dictionary for the others. As this part of the Grammar 
is to be consulted only by those who are already acquainted 
with the language, we shall not translate into English the ex- 
amples illustrating the rules. (See these illustrations at the 
end of the Grammar.) 



Of the Noun as Regimen or Object of a Verb. 

1 101. A verb may govern two nouns, but not in the same 
manner ; one of those nouns is the immediate object of the verb, 
and is called, on that account, its direct object ; the other 
receives its action with the help of a preposition, and is called 
its indirect object. Thus in this sentence, 

I prefer rest to pleasure, Je preflre le repos au plaisir, 

repos is the direct, and plaisir the indirect, object of the verb 
je prefere. 

1102. A verb can have but one direct object ; therefore, 
when a verb has two objects, one must be direct and the other 
indirect ; as, 



VERB. 295 

I have given a book to my sister. J'ai donne un livre a ma sozur. 

The reason of this rule is, that an action cannot operate 
immediately and directly upon two different objects with the 
same impulse of the mind ; it is, then, with reason that the 
following verse of Racine has been severely condemned ; 

Ne vous informez pas ce que je deviendrai, 
Do not inquire what will become of me, 

because we find in it two words, vous and ce, acting as direct 
objects of the verb informer, when they receive the action of 
that verb through a different direction of the mind ; grammar 
requires that it should be written as follows, 

Ne vous informez pas de ce que je deviendrai, 

because, then, informez has but a direct object, the preposition 
of giving to the word ce the character of being indirectly the 
object of that verb. 

1103. When we say, that a verb ought not to have two 
direct objects, we do not mean, that the direct action of a 
verb cannot be felt by several nouns, but that they must be 
joined together, so as to make a whole, by the conjunctions 
and, et, nor, m, or, ou, &c. ; as, 

I love reading, drawing, music, and J'aime la lecture, le dessin, la ma- 
dancing, sique, et la danse, 

I love neither reading, drawing, Je n'aime ni la lecture, ni le dessin, 

music, nor dancing, ni la musique, ni la danse, 

I love either reading or drawing, or J'aime la lecture, ou le dessin, ou 

music or dancing. la musique ou la danse, 

because these different nouns receive the action of the verb 
through the same impulse, and constitute but one single opera- 
tion of the mind. 

1104. A verb ought not to have two indirect objects to 
express the same relation. Thus we must not say, 

It is you whom I speak to. C'est a vous a qui je parle. 

It is of you that I speak. C'est de vous dont je parle. 

It is to the town that I go. C'est a la ville ou je vais. 

In order to show the fault of these phrases, it is only neces- 
sary to suppress the word c'est, which is used here only to 
render more apparent what is spoken of ; thus we shall have, 

Je parle a. vous a qui. 
Je parle de vous dont. 
Je vais a la ville a la quelle. 



296 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

In this last sentence a laquelle is the equivalent of ou. It is, 
then, evident, that there is but one relation to be expressed by 
the verb, and this relation being already made known by a vous, 
de vous, a la ville, the objects a qui, dont, ou, are without any 
function, and consequently improperly used. Instead of em- 
ploying this useless relation, the two propositions, or mem- 
bers of these sentences, ought to be united by a conjunc- 
tion, and that, que, be used for that purpose ; we must then 
say, 

C'est a vous que je parle. 
C'est de vous que je parle. 
C'est a la ville que je vais. 

1105. Neither should we say, 

C'est id ou je demeure, It is here where I live, 

C'est la oil je vais, It is there where 1 go, 

because, if in these sentences the verb has not two indirect 
objects, they contain two adverbs expressing the same circum- 
stance, and one alone is sufficient ; we must say then, 

C'est id queje demeure. 
C'est la que je vais. 

In fact, the mind has entirely accomplished its object with 
these words, je demeure ici, je vais la ; the adverb ou, placed 
after ici and la, not adding any thing to the sense, ought to be 
suppressed, and replaced by the conjunction que, to unite the 
two propositions. 

1106. We must never give a verb an object different from 

that which it requires ; for instance, nuire, to hurt, parler, 

to speak, pardonner, to forgive, require an indirect object, 

because we say, nuire a quelqu'un, to hurt some one, parler a 

quelqu'un, to speak to some one, pardonner a quelqu'un, to 

forgive some one ; then we must not say, 

\ 
They have hurt each other, lis se sont nui les uns les autres, 

They have spoken to each other, lis se sont parle les uns les autres, 

Though guilty I forgave them, Quoique coupables je les ai pardon- 

nes. 

but we ought to write, 

lis se sont nui les uns aux autres. 
Us se sont parle les uns aux autres. 
Quoique coupables, je leur ai pardonne. 



VERB. 297 

1107. A noun cannot be governed by two verbs, unless 
both act upon it in the same relation. 

Thus a noun cannot be the direct object of one verb and the 
indirect object of another ; as in the following sentence ; 

This officer attacked the city and Cet officier attaqua et se rendit 
took it ; maitre de la ville ; 

ville being the direct object of attaqua, and the indirect of 
se rendit maitre. 

1108. A noun cannot be the indirect object of two verbs 
which do not govern the same preposition ; as, 

Men are submissive to God, and Les hommes sont soumis et dipen- 
they depend on him, dent de JDieu, 

because the verb etre soumis governs the preposition to, a, and 

dependre, the preposition of, de. 

These two sentences ought to be constructed differently, in 

order to give to each verb the regimen which it requires ; 

thus we should say, 

Cet officier attaqua la ville et s'en rendit maitre. 
Les hommes sont soumis a Dieu et en dependent. 

1109. When a, verb has different modes of governing, the 
same mode ought to be employed for every period governed 
by the verb ; thus the following sentence is incorrect, 

These reasons will not prevent pub- Ces raisons Vi 1 empicheront pas Vin- 

lic indignation from bursting out dignation generate de percer de 

on all sides, nor the right which toutes parts, ni<?wele monde ne soit 

the world has to ask great and en droit d'exiger de grandes et 

serious reparations, serieuses reparations, 

because it is not right to give first to the verb empecher a noun 

for its direct object, and then the conjunction que before an 

incidental phrase, governed by the same verb. This sentence 

ought to have been written in either of the two following 

ways ; 

Ces raisons tf emptcheront pas V indignation generale de percer de toutes 
parts, ni le droit qu'aura le monde d'exiger, &c. ; 

Or, 

Ces raisons n' empicheront pas que V indignation generale ne perce de toutes 
parts, ni que le monde ait le droit d'exiger, &c, 

because in either way the verb empecher is followed by objects 
of the same nature. 



298 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

It would be equally wrong to say, 

He loves gambling and studying, II aime lejeu et a dludier, 

They are pleased with walking, and lis se plaisent a se promener et au 
going to theatres, spectacle, 

because the verbs aimer and se plaire have for their objects 
words which are not connected with them in the same manner. 
We ought to say, 

11 aime le jeu et l'etude, 



Or, 



Or, 



11 aime a jouer et a. etudier. 

lis se plaisent a la promenade et au spectacle, 



lis se plaisent a se promener et a. aller au spectacle. 

1110. The object of a verb is generally placed after the 
verb ; as, 

America has always conquered UAmirique a toujours vaincu VAn- 

England on the sea, when fight- gleterre sur mer, en combattant a 

ing with an equal number of ves- egale force, 
sels of the same force. 

1111. But in interrogative sentences, where the verb is 
followed by a personal pronoun, the object is placed before ; 
as, 

What object do you see ? Quel objet voyez-voxis ? 

What is the science you devote A quelle science vous appliquez- 
yourself to ? vous ? 

1112. When a verb has two objects of a different length, 
the shortest ordinarily goes first ; but if they are of the same 
length, the direct object takes the lead ; as, 

Hypocrites make it a study to deco- Les hypocrites se font une etude 
rate vice with the appearance of (Tomer le vice des dehors de la 
virtue. vertu. 

In this sentence the direct object, vice, being the shortest, 
comes first ; but in the following, 

Hypocrites make it a study to deco- Les hypocrites s'etudient a. parer 

rate with the appearance of vir- des dehors de la vertu, les vices les 

tue, vices the most degrading and plus honteux et les plus de'crie's, 
the most disreputable, 

the indirect object, being shorter than the direct, precedes it 
in its construction. 



VERB. 299 

1113. Sometimes, however, in order to avoid an ambiguity, 
we are compelled to place the indirect object first, although 
it is of the same, or of a greater, length than the direct ; as, 

The philosopher draws from nature Le philosophe arrache a la nature 
all its secrets. to us ses secrets. 

If, in this sentence, we place the direct object first, on ac- 
count of its being of the same length as the indirect, we are 
at a loss to know if it is the secrets of nature, or of the phi- 
losopher, which are spoken of ; in the following, 

The Gospel teaches those who wish L'Evangile inspire aux personnes 
to be really devoted to God, a qui veulent etre sincerement a 
sincere and unsuspicious piety. Dieu, une pittc sincere et non 

suspecte. 

1114. The indirect object, although of a greater length than 
the direct, is placed first/ because, if it came after, we should 
not perceive at once whether the words aux personnes were 
governed by the verb inspirer, or by the adjective non sus- 
pecte. 

1115. Although an active verb ought to have a direct 
object, it is sometimes used without, but only when taken in 
the whole extent of its signification ; we find in Racine, 

He bien ! Connais done, Phedre et toute sa fureur ! 
Vaime\ ne pense pas qu'au moment que je t'aime, 
Innocente a mes yeux, je m'approuve moi-meme. 

1116. Passive verbs govern the prepositions de, of, and 
par, by ; de when they express a feeling, a passion, an im- 
pulse of the soul ; par when they express an action in which 
only the mind or body is interested, or takes a part ; 

An honest man is esteemed by L'honnete homme est estime de tout 

everybody. le monde. 

A great part of the -globe has been Un grande partie du globe a ete 

conquered by the Romans. conquise par les Romains. 

1117. Nevertheless par is sometimes used for de, to avoid 
the repetition of this preposition, which would be disagreeable 
to the ear ; as, 

Your conduct has been generally Votre conduiteaete approuvee c?'une 
approved by all wise and enlight- commune voix par tous les hommes 
ened men. sages et eclaires. 



300 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



Of Pronouns used as Objects of the Verb. 

1118. In our article on the Pronoun we have already given 
all the rules about the pronoun being used nominatively or 
objectively ; we shall, then, only repeat here that those pro- 
nouns are the following : 



Que, 


Which. 


Me, 


Me, or to me. 


Te, 


Thee, or to thee. 


Se, 


Himself, herself, themselves, one's self, itself. 


Le, 


Him, it. 


La, 


Her, it. 


Lui, 


To him, to her, to it. 


Elle, 


Her. 


Nous, 


Us, to us. 


Vous, 


You, to you. 


Les, 


Them. 


Leur, 


To them. 


En, 


Of it, of him, or her, of them. 


Y, 


To it. 



It is very important to understand fully the collocation and 
use of these pronouns, upon which depend so much the ele- 
gance and clearness of the style, as well as the right applica- 
tion of the rules and principles, which is one of the most 
difficult parts of the language. 

The pronouns used as regimen are, in most cases, placed 
before the verb ; as in the following sentences, 

She was in danger of succumbing, Elle s'est trouvee en danger de sue- 
but, recalling her virtue, she has comber, mais rappelant sa vertu, 
repented her weakness. elle s'est reproche sa faiblesse. 

I have received the letters which J'ai regu les lettres que vous m'avez 
you wrote me about the affair ecrites au sujet de Paffaire que je 
which I have proposed to you ; vous ai proposee, et apr&s les 
and after having read them with avoir lues avec attention, j'ai re- 
attention, I have found out, like connu, comme vous, que si je 
yourself, that if I had undertaken Z'avais enterprise, fy aurais trouve 
it, I should have found obstacles des obstacles que je n'avais pas 
which I had not foreseen. pre v us. 

Voila par quels exploits il sut se couronner ; 
Enfin, voila l'epoux que tu me veux donner. 
Non je ne serai point complice de ses crimes, 
Qui il nous prenne, s'il veut, pour dernieres victimes, 
Tous mes ressentiments lui seraient asservis. 

(Racine.) 

For the exceptions to this rule, we refer to our preceding 
article on the Pronouns used as Regimens. 



VERB. 301 



OF THE USE OF MOODS AND TENSES OF MOODS. 

1119. We have already given the definition of all the ten- 
ses in the verb ; this definition is sufficient for employing these 
tenses individually, but now we must show how they agree 
with each other, how they correspond and may be used in 
order to convey the operations of the mind according to the 
genius of the language. 

It is sometimes very difficult to know when the subjunctive 
ought to be used, and what tenses of the subjunctive corre- 
spond with those of the indicative, according to the mind of 
the speaker ; we will attempt to throw a sufficient light on this 
matter. 



Cases in which the Subjunctive Mood is to be employed. 

1120. There are no fixed rules to show with certainty when 
we should use the indicative or subjunctive mood ; it some- 
times depends upon the views of the mind, sometimes upon 
custom alone ; nevertheless we may lay down some rules which 
may be applied in most cases. 

1121. In order to understand what follows, we must say that 
there are some conjunctions which always require the indicative 
mood after them ; some, the subjunctive ; and, in fine, others 
which sometimes govern the subjunctive and sometimes not. 

1122. A sentence which may require the use of the sub- 
junctive, is composed of two parts or propositions, separated 
by a conjunction or a pronoun governing this mood. The first 
part of the sentence, that which precedes the conjunction or 
pronoun, is called the principal proposition, and that which 
follows them, and through them receives the action of the 
principal proposition, is called the incidental or subordinate 
proposition ; in this sentence, 

I think that you like to play. Je crois que vous aimez a jouer. 

Je crois is the principal proposition, and vous aimez a jouer 
26 



302 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

the incidental ; the conjunction que is the means of uniting the 
two propositions. 

1123. Rule. The verb of the incidental proposition should 
be placed in the indicative mood, when that of the principal 
expresses an affirmation in a direct, positive, and independent 
manner. 

1124. The verb of the incidental proposition, on the con- 
trary, should be placed in the subjunctive mood when that of 
the principal expresses doubt, surprise, admiration, fear, un- 
certainty, order, and, in fine, when expressing an impulse of 
the soul, which is an extraordinary state of the mind. Thus, 
we can say, using the indicative mood : 

I know that he is surprised. Je sais qu'il est surpris. 

I believe that he will come. Je crois qu'il viendra. 

Because the verb of the first proposition expresses no impulse 
of the soul, and the affirmation is positive and direct. But we 
should say, with the subjunctive mood : 

I doubt that he may be surprised. Je doute qu'il soit surpris. 

I wish that he may come. Je desire qu'il vienne. 

I wish that he may succeed in his Je desire qu'il Hussisse dans son 

enterprise. entreprise. 

Because in these sentences there is doubt, will, desire, which 
shows that the soul is out of its natural state. 

When we treat of the conjunctions we will give a list of 
those which govern both of these moods. 

1125. Let us examine now what are the other cases which 
require the use of the subjunctive. It must be used in interrog- 
ative sentences expressing doubt ; as, 

Do you think that when God creat- Pensez-vous qu'en formant la re- 
ed the republics of bees, he did publique des abeilles, Dieu n'ait 
not intend to teach kings to com- pasvoulu instruire les rois a com- 
mand with kindness, and their mander avec douceur, et les su- 
subjects to obey with love ? jets a obeir avec amour ? 

1126. The same rule is observed when the principal propo- 
sition, expressing doubt, is negative, although not interrogative ; 
as, 

You could not be persuaded that Vous ne pouviez vous persuader 
the business would terminate so que les affaires tourndssent si 
badly. mal. 



VERB. 303 

1127. But the indicative must be used, if the verb of the 
principal proposition, either negative or interrogative, expresses 
a positive affirmation ; as, 

Do you think that I am the son of Croyez-vous que je suis le fils d'un 

a dog, to treat me with so little chien, pour me traiter avec si 

ceremony ? peu de ceremonie? 

Do not say any longer that I am Ne dites plus queje smsvotreami, 

your friend, you are no longer vous vous etes perdu dans mon 

mine in my estimation. estime. 

1128. The relative pronouns, qui, que, lequel, dont, and ou, 
govern the subjunctive, when preceded by a sentence express- 
ing doubt, desire, condition, or by a sentence either interroga- 
tive or negative ; as, 

Choose a place where you may be Choisissez un lieu oil vous soyez 

quiet. tranquille. 

Take a husband who may make Prenez un mari qui puisse vous 

you happy. rendre heureuse. 

Take a husband whom you may Prenez un mari que vous puissicz 

love. aimer. 

There is not in the human heart a 11 rty a pas dans le coeur de 1'hom- 

sentiment that is not inspired by me un sentiment qui ne soit in- 

God. spire de Dieu. 

Is there any one who does not feel Y-a-t-il quelqu'un qui ne sente qu'il 

that he is degraded by his bad se degrade par une mauvaise 

conduct ? conduite ? 

1129. The same relative pronouns, qui, que, lequel, dont, 
and ou, govern also the subjunctive, when preceded by a super- 
lative relative ; as, 

The best resolution that you may Le meilleur parti que vous puissiez 
take after incurring such infamy prendre, apres une telle conduite, 
is to hang yourself. c'est de vous pendre. 

1130. The subjunctive is also used with some impersonal 
verbs ; as, 

I must go into the country to-mor- 11 faut que faille demain a la cam- 
row, pagne. 

It is wrong for you to slander me 11 est mal que vous disiez du mal 
only because you do not like me. de moi par la seule raison que 

vous ne m'aimez pas. 

1131. In elliptical sentences the subjunctive gives elegance 
to the style ; as, 



304 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

How powerful is the hand of the Quelle n'est pas la puissance des 

gods ! Should you be at the bot- dieux ! Fussiez-vous au fond 

torn of an abyss, Jupiter could des abimes, la main de Jupiter 

rescue you from there; should pourrait vous en tirer ; fussiez- 

you be in heaven, beholding the vous dans l'olympe, voyant les 

stars rolling under your feet, Ju- astres rouler sous vos pieds, Jupi- 

piter could precipitate you into ter pourrait vous precipiter dans 

the flames of the black Tartarus! les flammes du noir Tartare ! 

There is an ellipsis in the two members of this sentence, and 
the subjunctive is used instead of the conditional, preceded by 
quand, when ; as, fussiez-vous is put for quand vous seriez, and 
should you be, for when you should be. 



What are the Tenses of the Subjunctive Mood or those of the 
Conditional which correspond to the Tenses of the Indica- 
tive 1 

1132. It is generally the tense of the first verb which shows 
what tense of the subjunctive must be employed in the second ; 
thus we must say : 

I must love. 11 faut quefaime, and not quefai- 

mdsse. 
It was necessary for me to love. llfallait que faimasse, and not que 

faime. 
It has been necessary for me to 11 a fallu que faie aime, and not 

have loved. quefeusse aimL 

It should have been necessary for 11 aurait fallu quefeusse aime", and 
me to have loved. not que faie aimb. 

In order to resolve these difficulties, let us examine first 
what are the different relations which moods and tenses have 
to each other. 



Relations existing between the Tenses of the Indicative Mood. 

1133. When the first verb is in the imperfect, the preterite 
definite or the pluperfect, and the second verb is intended to 
express a temporary action, this last verb is used in the imper- 
fect, if we wish to speak in the present ; in the pluperfect, if 



VERB. 



305 



we speak in the past ; and in the present of the conditional, if 
we wish to speak in the future absolute; as, 



I thought 
I did think 
I had thought 
Je croyais 
Je crus 
J'avais cru 

I thought 
I did think 
I had thought 
Je croyais 
Je crus 
J'avais cru 

I thought 
I did think 
I had thought 
Je croyais 
Je crus 
J'avais cru 



that you loved to study. 



que vous aimiez l'etude. 



that you had loved to study. 



que vous aviez aimk l'etude. 



that you would love to study. 



que vous aimeriez l'etude. 



Present. 



Past. 



Future absolute. 



1134. But although the first verb be in any of these tenses, 
the second remains in the present, if it expresses a thing which 
is true at all times ; as, 



I said 

I did say 

I had said 

Je vous disais 

Je vous dis 

Je vous avais dit 



to you that God is great, 
que Dieu est grand. 



Present, 
> at all times. 



1135. With the conjunction si, if, the pluperfect is used af- 
ter a conditional past, when the action following is temporary, 
but if permanent, the imperfect ought to be employed; as in 
the following sentence : 



I should have bowed to you if I had 
seen you. 



Je vous aurais salue sije vous avais 
vu. 



The pluperfect shows that the person who speaks, generally 
sees, but has not seen you that time ; the action of not seeing is 
transitory; but if the person who speaks is blind, the action 
would become permanent, and then the imperfect should be 
used ; as, 

I would have bowed to you if I Je vous aurais salue sije voyais. 
could have seen you. 

Thus the following phrase is incorrect : 

26* 



t\VV^ 



306 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

He would not have suffered this in- II n'aurait pas souffert cet affront 
suit if he was sensible. sHl avait We sensible. 

Because sensibility is not a temporary disposition ; a person 
has natural sensibility or not, therefore, the imperfect should be 
used instead of the pluperfect ; as, 

II n'aurait pas souffert cet affront sHl itait sensible. 




Of the Relation between the Tenses of the Subjunctive Mood 
and those of the Indicative and Conditional Moods. 

1136. When the verb of the principal proposition is in the 
* pQi » fe ' Q4 ) , or in the future of the indicative, that of the incidental 

proposition is placed in the present of the subjunctive, if the 
person who speaks wishes to express a present or a future ab- 
solute ; but it is placed in the preterite, if to express a past ; 

as, 

Present. 

I must go into the country. 11 faut que faille a, la campagne. 

Do you doubt now, that success will Doutez-vous aujourd'hui que le suc- 
crown your efforts ? ces ne couronne vos efforts ? 

Future Absolute. 

It will be necessary for me to go in- Tifaudra que faille a la campagne. 

to the country. 

Will you doubt still, that success Doutez-vous encore que le succes 

may crown your efforts ? ne couronne vos efforts ? 

Past. 

You must have been very lazy to Ilfaut que vous ayez ete bien pares- 
have succeeded so little in your seux pour avoir si mal reussi dans 
studies. vos etudes. 

1137. Nevertheless, although the first verb be in the present, 
the second proposition may be placed in the imperfect or the 
pluperfect of the subjunctive, when there is in the sentence a 
conditional expression ; as, 

There is no man, whatever may be II iCy a pas d'homme, quelque me- 

his merit, who would not be much rite qu'il soit, qui nef&t tres mor- 

mortified, if he knew all that peo- tifie, s'ilsavoit tout ce qu'on pense 

pie think of him. de lui. 

I doubt whether this affair would Je doute que cette affaire eitt riussi 

have succeeded without your as- sans votre protection. 
sistance. 

1138. When the verb of the principal proposition is in the 



VERB. 307 

imperfect) any of the preterites, the pluperfect, or one of the 
conditionals, that of the incidental proposition is placed in the 
imperfect of the subjunctive, to express a present or a future, 
and in the pluperfect of that mood, to express a past ; as, 

Present. 

IMPERFECT. 

I wished sincerely that new success- Je desirais sincerement que de nou- 
es might silence envy. veaux succes fissent taire l'envie. 

PRETERITE DEFINITE. 

Caligula wished that the Romans Caligula voulut que les Romains lui 
would render him divine honors. rendissent les honneurs divins. 

PRETERITE INDEFINITE. 

God has permitted that the invasion Dieu a permis que l'invasion des bar- 
of the barbarians might overthrow bares renversdt l'empire Romain. 
the Roman empire. 

PLUPERFECT. 

I had ordered that all the documents Vavais ordonne que toutes les pieces 
should be placed under your eyes. fussent mises sous vos yeux. 

Future. 

PRETERITE ANTERIOR. 

I had done ploughing my field be- J'ews fini de labourer mon champ 
fore you came. avant que vous n'arrivassiez. 

CONDITIONAL PRESENT. 

I should like that men would form Je voudrais que les hommes nefor- 

only one large republic, whose mdssent qu.^ \ine granderepublique, 

supreme chief should be God, and dont Dieu serait le chef supreme 

of which every nation should be et dont chaque nation serait 

as a large family. comme une grande famille. 

CONDITIONAL PAST. 

Would you have wished that, in or- Auriez-vous voulu que pour me ven- 
der to avenge myself, I should ger, je sacrifiasse mon bonheur 
sacrifice my own happiness. personnel. 

Past. 

IMPERFECT. 

I did not know that you had made Je ne savais pas que vous eussiezfait 
so thorough a study of the mod- une etude si approfondie des lan- 
ern languages. gues modernes. 

PRETERITE DEFINITE. 

You did not think that wickedness Vous ne crMes pas que la mechante 
and hatred would have produced et la haine e&ssent pu produire de 
such deplorable results. si tristes resultats. 



308 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



PRETERITE INDEFINITE. 



You have not believed that they "Vous vCaviez pas cru qu'on etittendu 
had prepared a trap for your sim- un piege a votre innocence, 
plicity. 



PLUPERFECT. 



We had not been aware that the Nous avions ignorS que le roi vous 
king had granted you this favor. eut accordd cette faveur. 



CONDITIONAL. PRESENT. 



You would not be pleased if we had Vous trouveriez mauvais que nous 
disobeyed your orders. eussions contrevenu a vos ordres. 



CONDITIONAL. PAST. 



You would not have been pleased, Vous aurieztrouve mauvais que nous 
if we had not accomplished your n'eussions pas executt vos ordres. 
orders. 

PRETERITE ANTERIOR. 

I had done ploughing my field be- Veus laboure mon champ avant que 
fore you arrived. vous nefussiez arrvoi. 

1139. Nevertheless, with the preterite indefinite, the verb 
of the incidental proposition may be used in the present, if it 
expresses an action which may be accomplished at all times ; 
as, 

God has covered the eye with thin Dieu a entoure l'ceil de tuniques 
and transparent coats, which we minces ettransparentes afin qu'on 
may see through. puisse voir a travers. 

1140. The same verb should be placed in the preterite of 
the subjunctive, if it expresses that this fact, which may be 
done at all times, has been accomplished in the past ; as, 

He must have solicited his judges. II afallu qu'il ait sollicite ses juges. 

A knowledge of the arrangement of tenses with each other is 
so important, that, in order to make it as easy as possible, we 
have constructed a general table, where one may, at once, see 
what are the relations which are sanctioned by the nature of 
the language. 



VERB. 309 



A TABLE, SHOWING THE CORRESPONDENCE BETWEEN 
MOODS AND TENSES. 

Relation of the Tenses of the Indicative to each other. 

1141. The Present (je lis, I read) corresponds 

_ , C When you read. 

To the same tense, [ Quand vous lisez# 

m , _ . x , . . $ When you have read. 

To the Preterite Indefinite, ^ Quand vous avez lu> 

1142. The Imperfect (je lisais, I was reading) corres- 
ponds 

m . C When you were writing. . 

To the same tense, * Quand vous ecriviez. 

m * r> , . t\ c •* £ When you did write. 

To the Preterite Definite, \ Quand vous 6crivites> 

m j_ ii *• ■» t' j * •* f When you have written. 

To the Preterite Indefinite, J Quand vous avez ^ 

1143. The Preterite Definite (je vins, I came) corres- 
ponds 

a* *u -d * •* a * ■ f When you had done ploughing. 

To the Preterite Anterior, £ Quand voug e{ites lab J^f 

1144. The Pluperfect (j'avais Ztt, I had read) corresponds 

To the Imperfect, \ Jf he * ^ cam f e in " 

^ ' £ Quand vous entnez. 

m .. „ . , «... C When you came in. 

To the Preterite Definite, J Quand ' yous entrates< 

m ,i' n. i j^t-j * !, ( When you have come in. 

To the Preterite Indefinite, \ Quand > 0U8 gtes entr6> 

t 1 a. r> t •.. a * • ( When you had come in. 

To the Preterite Anterior, \ Quand yous ^ ^ 

1145. The Preterite Anterior (j'eus fini de labourer, I had 
done ploughing) corresponds 

To the Preterite Definite, i ^ he ^ ^ Cam f ' 

' ( Quand vous vintes. 

1146. The Future (je lirai, I shall read) corresponds 

To the same tense, i When you shall come. 

£ Quand vous viendrez. 

To the Future Past, i J he * y° u sha11 ha J e . done ' 

(. Quand vous aurez fini. 



310 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

1147. The Future Past (faurai lu, I shall have read) cor- 
responds 

rt- . -, .■ „ C When you shall come, 

To the Future Present, J Quand ; oug viendrez . 

rr- iL in x t> * ( When you shall have done. 

To the Future Past. ^ Quand ' vous aurez fini 

Many persons commit the fault of employing the future present 
and past with si, if, meaning suppose that ; the present or the 
preterite indefinite should be used in their place as follows : 

1148. The Future Present or Absolute corresponds 

rp, xl _ r, ... .j. C You shall go if I wish it. 

To the Present, with if \ Yqqs parti % z s • je ^ 

1149. The Future Past or Anterior corresponds 

["You shall go to-morrow, if I have 

To the Preterite Indefinite, with if J v had time t0 f\ e P are 7°™ .?***• 
' J ' ] V ous serez parti demain, si fat eu le 

L temps d'arranger votre affaire. 

1150. The Conditional Present corresponds 

To the Infect, with ,/, { $%£$£& l £& "' 

1151. The First Conditional Past corresponds 

C You should have set out, if I had 
To the Pluperfect, with if \ wished it. 

C Vous seriez parti, si je Yavais voulu. 

1152. The First Conditional Past corresponds 

To the Second Conditional Past, 5 You \ ho ^ have set 0Ut ' if l had 
„,-,. •/• ' < wished it. 



with if 



Vous seriez parti, si je Yeusse voulu. 



1153. The Second Conditional Past corresponds 

TYou should have set out, if I had 

To the same tense and if, J 17 wlshedlt : .. . . ,, 

J ' j Vous fussiez parti, si je Yeusse 

|_ voulu. 

When, instead of the conjunction si, if, the condition is 
expressed by quand, when, the following relations take place. 

1154. The Conditional Present corresponds 

If a miser possessed all the gold in 
the world, he would not be satis- 

To the same tense, <j Q ^ Vmre fossidemit tout r?r 

| du monde, il ne serait pas satis* 
L fait. 



VERB, 



311 



1155. The Conditional Past corresponds 



To the same tense, 



If Alexander had conquered the 
universe, he would not have been 
satisfied. 

Quand Alexandre aurait conquis 
l'univers, il ri aurait pas He con- 
tent. 



1156. When two sentences are connected by the conjunc- 
tion que, that, we employ, sometimes the indicative, sometimes 
the subjunctive, in the incidental proposition ; and relations are 
established not only between the different tenses of the same 
mood, but between the moods themselves. 

1157. The Present of the Indicative (on dit, they say,) 
and the Future Present (on dira, they will say,) correspond to 
the following tenses ; 

{That you start to-day for Rome. 
Que vous partez aujourd'hui pour 
Rome. 

5 That you were starting yesterday. 
I Que vous partiez hier. 

5 That you have started this morning. 
I Que vous etes parti ce matin. 

t That you did start yesterday. 



To the Present Tense, 

To the Imperfect, 
To the Preterite Indefinite, 
To the Preterite Definite, 
To the Pluperfect, 

To the Preterite Anterior, 

To the Future Absolute, or Pre- 
sent, 

To the Future Anterior, or Past, 
To the Conditional Present, 

To the First Conditional Past, 
To the Second Conditional Past. 



Lue vous partites hier. 



{ That you had started before me. 
( Que vous Hiez parti avant moi. 

That you had started before me. 
Que vous futes parti avant moi. 

That you will start to-morrow. 
Que vous partirez demain. 

5 That you will have started before me. 
( Que vous serez parti avant moi. 

{ That you would start to-day if, &c. 
( Quevous porft'nezaujourd'hui si, &c. 

{That you would have started yester- 
day if, &c. 
Que vous seriez parti hier si, &c. 

C That you would have started yester- 

< day if, &c. 

C Que vous fussiez parti hier si, &c. 

1158. If the principal proposition were negative the same 
relation would exist, except with the present of the indicative, 
in which case the subjunctive should be used in its stead. 



312 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

We do not say that you start to-day, On ne dit pas que vous partez aa- 

jourd'hui, 

is a grammatical fault, which many persons commit ; the genius 

of our language requires the Subjunctive ; as follows, 

On ne dit pas que vous partiez aujourd'hui. 

1159. The Imperfect (on disait, they say), the Preterite 
Indefinite (on a dit, they have said), the Preterite Definite 
(on dit, they did say) , the Pluperfect (on avait dit, they had 
said), of the Indicative correspond 

To the Imperfect of the same mood, $ £hat J™ star , ted to -. da y- , . 
r ' ( Que vous partiez aujourd hui. 

1160. The Imperfect (on disait, they said), the Preterite 

Indefinite (on adit, they have said), the Preterite Definite 

(on dit, they did say), the Pluperfect (on avait dit, they had 

said), of the Indicative correspond 

To the Pluperfect of the same t That you had started to-day. 

mood, ( Que vous etiez parti aujourd'hui. 

1161. The Future Absolute (on diva, they will say), the 
Future Anterior (on aura dit, they will have said), corres- 
pond 

To the Preterite Indefinite of the J That you have started. 
Indicative, \ Que vous etes parti. 

1162. But it must not be forgotten, that these relations are 
all replaced by the Present of the Indicative, when the first 
sentence expresses a fact, or an idea, which is true at all 
times. 

1163. The Imperfect (on disait, they said), the Preterite 
Indefinite (on a dit, they have said), the Preterite Definite 
(on dit, they did say), the Pluperfect (on avait dit, they had 
said) , of the Indicative, correspond 

To the Conditional Present, \ ™ at *™ 221*2!™* 

( Que vous partiriez. 

1164. The Imperfect (on disait, they said), the Preterite 

Indefinite (on a dit, they have said), the Preterite Definite 

(on dit, they did say), the Pluperfect (on avait dit, they had 

said), the Conditional Past (on aurait dit, they would have 

said) , of the Indicative, correspond 

t« ♦*,« r^^f^oi Poo* 5 Tnat y° u would have started. 

To the Conditional Past, [ Que ££ genez ^ 



VERB. 



313 



1165. The Conditional (on dirait, one would say), corres- 
ponds 



To the Present, 

To the Imperfect, 

To the Preterite Indefinite, 

To the Pluperfect, 

To the Future Absolute, 

To the Conditional Present, 

To the First Conditional Past, 
To the Second Conditional Past, 



c That he is mistaken. 
( Qu'il se trompe. 

C That he was mistaken. 
I Qu'il se trompait. 

C That he has been mistaken. 
I Qu'il s'est trompe. 

£ That he had been mistaken. 
\ Qu'il s'itait trompi. 

C That he will be mistaken. 
( Qu'il se trompera. 

C That he would be mistaken, if, &c. 
I Qu'il se tromperait, si, &c. 

{That he would have been mistaken, 

1 if, &c. 

i Qu'il se serait trompe, si, &c. 

C That he would have been mistaken, 

< if, &c. 

i. Qu'il sefut trompe, si, &c. 



1166. The Conditional Past (on aurait dit, one would 
have said), corresponds 

To the Imperfect, 

To the Pluperfect, 

To the First Conditional Past, 

To the Second Conditional Past, 



C That he did fall. 
I Qu'il tombait. 

C That he had fallen. 
I Qu'il etait tombd. 

( That he would have fallen. 
I Qu'il serait tombi. 

C That he would have fallen. 
( Qu'il fut tombe. 



1167. The Present (il desire, he wishes), the Future Ab- 
solute (il desirera, he will wish), the Future Anterior (il 
aura desire, he will have wished), of the Indicative, corres- 
pond 

To the Present of the Subjunctive, \ ]E hat 7™ ma y .*°- 
J ' ( Que vous partiez. 

1168. The Imperfect (je voulais, I wished), the Preterite 
Definite (je voulus, I did wish), the Preterite Indefinite (fai 
vouluj I have wished), the Pluperfect (favais voulu, I had 
wished), the Conditional Present (je voudrais, I should wish), 
the First Conditional Past (j'aurais voulu, I should have 

27 



314 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

wished), the Second Conditional Past (feusse voulu, I 

should have wished) , correspond 

To the Imperfect of the Subjunc- C That you might go. 
tive. ( Que vous partissiez. 

1169. The Present of the Indicative (je veux, I wish), 

the Future Absolute (je voudrai, I shall wish), correspond 

To the Preterite of the Subjunc- C That you may have done, 
tive. I Que vous ayez fini. 

1170. The First Conditional Past (faurais voulu, I should 

have wished), the Second Conditional Past (feusse voulu, 

I should have wished), correspond 

To the Pluperfect of the Subjunc- C 1h at you might have done, 
tive. t Que vous eussiez fini. 



Examples illustrating the Preceding Rules. 

1171. Although the preceding rules are sufficient to show 
how to use the different tenses and moods of the verbs, we 
shall, in order to impress more deeply upon the minds of 
students the propriety of these rules, give a set of illustrations 
on each one of them. 

1172. Present with itself: 

I love to read while you are singing. Valine a lire pendant que vous 

chantez. 

1173. Present with the Preterite Indefinite : 

I dine only when my father has Je dine quand mon pere a dint. 
dined. 

1174. Imperfect with itself : 

Why did you sing while I was read- Pourquoi chantiez vous pendant que 
ing ? je lisais ? 

Imperfect with the Preterite Definite : 

I was singing when my friends Je chantais quand mes amis vinrent 
called for me yesterday. me chercher hier. 

Imperfect with the Preterite Indefinite : 

I was singing when my friends Je chantais quand mes amis soni 
called for me this morning. venus me chercher ce matin. 



VERB. 315 



1175. Preterite Definite with the Preterite Anterior : 

A storm burst just when I had done L'orage Vi'tclata que lorsque yens 
ploughing. fini de labourer. 

1176. Pluperfect with the Imperfect : 

I had always thought that you were Vavais toujours cru que vous itiez 
an honest man, but I was mis- honn&te homme, mais je me trorn- 
taken. pais. 

Pluperfect with the Preterite Indefinite : 

I had rendered you all my assist- Je vous avais rendu tous les services 
ance, and you have deceived me ; possibles, et vous m'avez trompd; 
you have broken my heart. vous m'avez brise le cosur. 

Pluperfect with the Preterite Definite : 

We dined early yesterday, and we Nous din&mes de bonne heure hier, 
had done when our company et nous avions fini quand notre 
came in. societe arriva. 

Pluperfect with the Preterite Anterior : 

We had done dining before you had Nous avions fini de diner avant que 
touched the roast meat. vous n'eutes toucM au roti. 

1177. The Preterite Anterior with the Preterite Definite : 

When I had done singing you came Quand j'ews fini de chanter vous 
in to take my place ; you tried vintes me remplacer; vous essay- 
to excite more praise in your be- fides d'eveiller l'attention en votre 
half, but you could not, and you faveur, vous ne reussites pas, et 
went away in a rage. vous sortites furieux. 

1178. The Future Present, or Absolute, with itself: 

When you pay me what you owe Quand vous me payerez ce que vous 
me, I will give you what I prom- me devez, je vous donnerai ce que 
ised you. je vous ai promis. 

The Future Present with the Future Past : 

If you do not come earlier than Si vous ne venez pas de meilleure 
usual, I shall have done singing heure que d 'habitude, yaurai 
before you arrive. fini de chanter quand vous arrive- 

rez, or, quand vous arriverez, 
yaurai fini de chanter. 

1179. The Future Past, or Anterior, with the Future 
Present : 

(See the last Example.) 

The Future Past with itself : 

I shall have done my dinner sooner Taurai fini mon diner plutot que 
than you will have done yours. vous n'aurez fini le votre. 



316 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

1180. The Future Absolute corresponds with the Present, 

with if, meaning suppose that : 

You say that you will grant my Vous dites que vous Jerez ce que je 

request if I pay you so much, but vous demande si je vous paye 

I have no confidence in your tant, mais je n'ai nulle confiance 

promises. en vous. 

1181. The Future Anterior with the Preterite Indefinite, 

and if : 

You say that you will arrange my Vous dites que vous aurez arrangi 

affairs for to-morrow, if I pay you mes affaires pour demain, si je 

one hundred dollars, but I do not vous donne cent gourdes, mais je 

believe a word of it. n'en crois pas un mot. 

1182. The Conditional Present with the Imperfect, and if : 

You would go to the end of the Vous iriez au bout du monde, si je 
world, if I sent you there with a vous y envoy ais avec un sourire. 
smile. 

1183. The First and Second Conditional Past with the 

Pluperfect, and if: 

I do hate you, but I would have Je vous hais, mais je vous aurais or 
worshipped you if you had loved eusse adorie si vous m'aviez aime. 
me. 

1184. The First and Second Conditional Past with the 

Second Conditional Past, and if: 

I should have loved you if you had Je vous aurais or eusse aimee si 
not offended my pride by your in- vous xfeussiez blesse ma fierte par 
suiting coldness. votre insultante froideur. 

1185. The Conditional Present with itself, and preceded 

by when : 

If England possessed the whole Quand l'Angleterre possederait le 
world, her ambition would not be monde entier, son ambition ne 
satisfied. serait pas satisfaite. 

1186. The two Conditionals Past correspond with the 
same tenses, when preceded by when : 

If Napoleon had lived a hundred Quand Napoleon aurait or eut v6cu 
years, he would not have been cent ans, il n'aurait pas amasst 
covered with more glory than he plus de gloire qu'il n'en eut pen- 
received during his short career. dant sa courte existence. 



1187. The Present with the Imperfect, and que, that : 

iey say that you and I were in On dit que vous Uiez a Rom* 
Rome at the same time. meme epoque que moi. 

1188. The Present with itself and que, that : 



VERB. 317 

They say that your brother is in On dit que votre frere est a Bos- 
Boston, but I have not seen him ton, mais je ne Vai pas encore 
yet. vu. 

1189. With the Preterite Indefinite, and que, that : 

They say that England has sent a On dit que l'Angleterre a envoye 
special messenger to America. un courier special en Amerique. 

1190. With the Preterite Definite and que, that : 

They say that when Napoleon On dit que lorsque Napoleon de- 
landed at Cannes he hesitated to barqua a Cannes il hesita a mar- 
go forward. cher en avant. 

1191. With the Pluperfect and que, that : 

They say that M** had escaped On dit que M** sHtait e'chappt de 
from gaol but he had been re- prison mais qu'il a ete repris. 
taken. 

1192. With the Preterite Anterior and que, that: 

They said that it stopped raining On dit qu'il eut cesse de pleuvoir 
before the theatre was out. avant que le spectacle nefutjini. 

1193. With the Future Absolute and que, that : 

They say that Mr. W. will remain On dit Mr. W. restera au ministere 

in the cabinet as long as Mr. T. aussi longtems que Mr. T. sera 

shall be the President of the Unit- President des Etats Unis. 
ed States. 

1194. With the Future Anterior and que, that : 

They say that General C. will have On dit que le General C. aura 
left France before his new ap- quitU la France avant que sa 
pointment is known to him. nouvelle dignite lui soit connue. 

1195. With the Conditional Present and que, that : 

They say that Mr. T. would hang On dit que Mr. T. se pendrait vol- 
himself if he could play a trick ontiers pour jouer un mauvais 
on the Whigs. tour au parti Whig. 

1196. With the first Conditional Past and que, that : 

They say that England would have On dit que l'Angleterre aurait tit 
been glad to see the Americans enchantee de voir les Ameri- 
fight among themselves. cains se battre entr'eux. 

1197. With the second Conditional Past and que, that : 

They say that the world would On dit que le monde eut certaine- 

certainly have come to an end if ment pris fin, si le bon Miller 

the good Mr. Miller had been eut ete pret a le quitter, 
ready to quit it. 

1198. What has been said of the agreement of the Present 

27* 



318 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

of the Indicative, with the other tenses of the same mood, may 
be said with the same propriety of the Future Absolute. 

1199. The Imperfect of the Indicative with itself and 
que, that : 

They said this morning that the On disait ce matin que Madame la 
Princess C** was very beautiful Princesse C # * etait magnifique 
yesterday at the Queen's ball. hier au bal de la reine. 

1200. The Preterite Definite with the Imperfect and que, 

that : 

They said yesterday that France On dit hier que la France etait 
was prepared to go to war with priparee a declarer la guerre a 
England. l'Angleterre. 

1201. The Preterite Indefinite with the Imperfect and que, 
that : 

They have said that the King was On a dit que le Roi se mourait 
dying when the doctors came in. quand les medecins arriverent. 

1202. The Pluperfect with the Imperfect and que, that : 

They had said that you intended to On avait dit que vous aviez l'in- 

start to-day to go to China, but tention de partir aujourd'hui 

it seems that you have changed pour la Chine, mais il parait que 

your mind. vous avez change d'avis. 

1203. The Imperfect with the Pluperfect and que, that : 

They said that all the Indians had On disait que la totalite des In- 
left Florida, but there are enough diens avait quitte les Florides, 
left yet to trouble the planters. mais il en est reste* assez pour 

inquieter les planteurs. 

1204. The Preterite Indefinite with the Pluperfect and que, 
that : 

They have heard that an earth- On a dit qu'un tremblement de 

quake had destroyed the West terre avait detruit les Antilles, 

India islands, but fortunately the mais heureusement cette nou- 

information has been contradict- velle a ete dementie. 
ed. 

1205. The Preterite Definite with the Pluperfect and que, 
that : 

They said yesterday that the steam- On dit hier que le steamer itait 
er had arrived with her mast arrive avec ses mats casses et sa 
broken and her boilers burst, but chaudiere crevee, mais heureuse- 
it was a hoax. ment c'etait une mauvaise plais- 

anterie. 

1206. The Pluperfect with itself and que, that : 



VERB. 



319 



They had said that the King had 
broken his leg while hunting, 
but he only bruised his face. 



On avait dit que le Roi s'itait 
casst la jambe a la chasse, mais 
heureusement il s'est seulement 
ecorehe la figure. 



1207. The Future Absolute with the Preterite Indefinite 
and que, that : 



They will say, perhaps, that Na- 
poleon wanted courage to die at 
Waterloo, but he had' not yet 
despaired of his cause, and his 
life did not belong to him. 

1208. The Future Anterior 
and que, that : 

They will say, probably, that after 
the revolution of 1830, France 
was not generous towards the 
heroes of the barricades ; but in 
revolutions the people are but 
tools, which are broken after they 
have accomplished their task. 



On dira peut-etre que Napoleon a 
manque' de courage en ne se fais- 
ant pas tuer a Waterlo, mais il n' 
avait pas encore desespere de sa 
cause, et sa vie ne lui appartenait 
pas. 

with the Preterite Indefinite 



On aura sans doute dit apr£sla re- 
volution de 1830, que la France 
s'est montree peu genereuse en- 
vers les heros des barricades ; 
mais en revolution, le peuple 
n'est qu'un instrument que Ton 
brise, lorsqu'il a accompli sa 
tache. 



1209. The Present used with all tenses when expressing 
a fact which is true at all times : 



They say, said, have said, will say, 
will have said, would say, would 
have said, that fidelity is a feel- 
ing which ennobles the charac- 
ter of man. 



On dit, on disait, on a dit, on dit, on 
avait dit, on eut dit, on dira, on 
aura dit, on dirait, on aurait dit, 
que la fidelite est un sentiment qui 
ennoblitle caractere del'homme. 



1210. The Imperfect with the Conditional Present and que, 
that : 



They said this morning that Mr. 
K. would preach next Sunday, 
and that probably the church 
would be full. 



On disait ce matin que Mr. K. pre- 
cherait dimanche prochain et 
que l'eglise serait probablement 
pleine. 



1211. The Preterite Indefinite with the Conditional Present 
and que, that : 



The President has said to one of 
my friends that he would join the 
Locos rather than see the ultra 
Whigs coming into power. 



Le President a dit a. un de mes 
amis qu'il se rSunirait aux Loco- 
focos, plutot que de laisser arriv- 
er les ultra Whigs au pouvoir. 



1212. The Preterite Definite with the Conditional Present 
and que, that : 



320 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



General Jackson said, one day, 
when he was President, that he 
would crush the banks rather 
than submit to their political 
despotism. 



Le General Jackson dit un jour, 
lorsqu'il etait President, qu'il ecra- 
serait les banques, plutot que de 
se soumettre a leur influence po- 
litique. 



1213. The Pluperfect with the Conditional Present and que, 



that : 

Before coming into power, Presi- 
dent Tyler promised that he 
would follow the standard of the 
Whig party, but the influence of 
power seems to have deranged 
his brain. 



Avant d'arriver au pouvoir le Pres- 
ident avait promts qu'il suivrait 
l'etendard du parti Whig, mais 
la fume'e de l'ambition semble 
lui avoir derange la cervelle. 



1214. The Imperfect with the Conditional Past and que, 
that : 



They said this morning that the 
Indians would have left the Ter- 
ritory of Florida before the first 
of the next month, but war will 
rage there for years. 



On disait ce matin que les Indiens 
auraient quitti le Territoire des 
Florides avant le premier du 
mois prochain, mais la guerre 
durera encore des annees. 



1215. The Preterite Indefinite with the Conditional Past and 
que, that : 



They have said that the laborers 
would have completed their work 
if they had been paid, but the 
money not being forthcoming, 
they left it. 



On a dit que les ouvriers auraient 
jinx leurs travaux si on les avait 
payes, mais l'argent ayant man- 
que, ils les ont abandonnes. 



1216. The Preterite Definite with the Conditional Past and 
que, that : 



They said three months ago, that 
the English would have left the 
coast of China if the Emperor 
had paid punctually his tribute, 
but I did not believe it, and ex- 
perience has proved that I was 
right. 



On dit qu'il y a trois mois que les 
Anglais auraient quitted les cotes 
de la Chine si l'Empereur avait 
paye ponctuellement son tribute, 
mais je ne le crus pas, et l'expe- 
rience a prouve que j'avais rai- 
son. 



1217. 
that : 



The Pluperfect and the Conditional Past with que. 



I thought that you would have hon- 
on and probity enough to keep 
your engagements with me, but 
I was deceived, for you have act- 
ed the part of a rogue, 



Javais cru que vous auriez eu as- 
sez de probite et d'honneur pour 
tenir vos engagements envers 
moi, mais je me trompais, car vous 
vous etes conduit comme un co- 
quin. 



VERB. 



321 



Who would have said that the first Qui aurait dit que les grand offi- 

officers of Napoleon would have ciers de Napoleon auraient ete 

abandoned him so soon, in his re- les premiers a le couvrir de leurs 

verses, and would have been the ingrates maledictions ? 
first to curse him with their un- 
grateful maledictions ? 

1218. The Conditional Present with the Present of the In- 
dicative and que, that : 

Why do you not answer with more Pourquoi ne repondezvous pas avec 



boldness? by seeing your coun 
tenance, one would say that you 
do not tell the truth. 



plus d'assurance ? a. vous voir, on 
dirait que vous mentez. 



1219. The Conditional Present with the Imperfect and que, 
that : 



You may go, and if we were asked 
why you have left your post, we 
would say, that you were sick 
and unable to stay any longer, 
without endangering your life. 



Vous pouvez partir, et si l'on nous 
demandait pourquoi vous avez 
quitte votre poste, nous dirions 
que vous itiez malade, et que 
vous ne pouviez y rester plus 
longtems sans exposer votre vie. 



1220. The Conditional Present with the Preterite Indefinite 
and que, that : 



Your progress in the English lan- 
guage is really astonishing ; for, 
by hearing you talk, one would 
suppose that you had lived in 
America for at least twenty 
years. 



Vos progres dans la langue An- 
glaise sont reellement surpren- 
ants ; car a vous entendre parler, 
on dirait que vous avez vecu vingt 
ans en Amerique. 



1221. The Conditional Present with the Pluperfect and que, 
that : 



The scandalous fortune made by 
some of the leaders of the rev- 
olution, would give to the world 
the right to suppose, that the 
persecutions exercised against 
the royalists were only calcu- 
lated to compel them to leave the 
country, so as to justify the con- 
fiscation of their property. 



Les fortunes scandaleuses que firent 
quelques uns des chef de la re- 
volution, donneraient au monde 
le droit de penser, que les per- 
secutions exercees contre les 
royalistes tfavaient eu d'autre but 
que celui de les forcer a emigrer, 
de maniere a justifier ainsi la 
confiscation de leurs proprietes. 



1222. The Conditional Present with the Future Absolute 
and que, that : 



322 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



The prejudices of the ministers 
against you are such, that, did I 
dare to ask for your liberty, they 
would say, that your first action, 
when free, would be to attempt 
to revolutionize the country 
again, with or without a hope of 
succeeding. 



Les prejuges des ministres contre 
vous sont tels, que si j'osais de- 
mander votre liberte, ils me rb- 
pondraient, qu'une fois libre, vo- 
tre premier mouvement sera de 
pousser de nouveau le pays a la 
revolte, avec ou sans espoir de 
succes. 



1223. The Conditional Present with itself and que, that : 



If I was questioned, I should say 
that you would start to-morrow, 
if you had money enough. 



Si l'on me questionnait, je dirais 
que vous partiriez demain, si 
vous aviez Pargent necessaire. 



1224. The Conditional Present with the Conditional Past 
and que, that : 



If I was asked about your conduct, 
I should say that you would have 
kept your word, if the govern- 
ment had kept their promise to 
you. 



Si l'on m'interrogeait sur votre con- 
duite, je dirais, que vous auriez or 
eussiez tenu a vos engagements, 
si le gouvernement avait res- 
pecte les siens. 



1225. The Conditional Past with the Imperfect and que. 
that : 



By the recital of the exploits of 
Emily Plater, during the revolu- 
tion of Poland, who would have 
supposed that this heroine, so 
much spoken of, was a young 
girl of about eighteen years of 



Au recit des exploits d'Emilie Pla- 
ter, pendant la revolution de Po- 
logne, qui aurait or eut dit que 
l'heroine, dont on parlait tant, 
rCitait qu'une jeune fille d'a-peu- 
pres dix-huit ans ? 



1226. 
that : 



The Conditional Past with the Pluperfect and que, 



Many think that General Jackson 
would have been as despotic as 
Napoleon, had fortune made him 
the son of a kinof. 



Bien des gens pensent quele Gen- 
eral Jackson aurait or eut eU aus- 
si despote que Napoleon si le 
hasard Vavait fait naitre sur le 
trone. 



1227. The Conditional Past with the same tense and que, 
that : 



One would have thought that after 
his return from Elba, Napoleon 
would have been a father to the 
people, but when he found him- 
self once more in the midst of his 
old grenadiers, he reassumed his 
old habits and attempted to be 
their master again ; but it was 
too late. 



On aurait, or eut cru, qu'apres son 
retour de l'ile d'Elbe, Napoleon 
se seroit or fat montri le pere 
du peuple ; mais aussitot qu'il se 
retrouva au milieu de ses vieux 
grenadiers, il reprit ses vieilles 
habitudes et voulut regner en 
maitre ; mais il etait trop tard. 



VERB. 



323 



1228. The Present of the Indicative with the Present of 
the Subjunctive (expressing a present) : 

Man must early accustom himself II faut que l'homme s'accoutume de 

to obedience, if be does not wish bonne heure a la soumission s'il 

to feel hereafter the weight of ne veut, plus tard, sentir trop 

the fetters which society forces fortement le poids des chaines 

him to bear. que la societe* lui impose. 

1229. The Future Absolute and the Present of the Sub- 
junctive (expressing a future) : 

As long as the world lasts, women 
will wish to command. 

You must not think that, because 
you have said that you wish to 
be obeyed, it will be a very 
strong motive for others to obey. 



Aussi longtems que le monde du- 
rera, la femme voudra qv?on lui 
obiisse. 

II ne faut pas croire que parceque 
vous aurez dit qu'on vous obtisse, 
ce sera assez pour qu'on se sou- 
mette. 



1230. The Imperfect of the Indicative with the Imperfect 
of the Subjunctive : 



Henry IV. wished all his subjects 
might be happy, and have a 
boiled chicken for their dinner. 



Henri IV. voulait que touts ses 
su]ets fussent heureux, et eussent 
la poule au pot pour leur diner. 



1231. The Preterite Definite with the Imperfect of the 
Subjunctive : 

Lorsque Washington quitta la di- 
rection des affaires publiques, il 
voulut que ses concitoyens con- 
nussent l'etendue de sa recon- 
naissance pour la conflance dont 
ils l'avaient investi. 



When Washington left the gov- 
ernment of public affairs he 
wished that his countrymen 
might know his deep gratitude 
for the confidence they had 
placed in him. 



1232. The Preterite Indefinite with the Imperfect of the 
Subjunctive : 

Has not Napoleon deceived himself 
when he wished for the whole of 
Europe to admire and fear him, 
instead of devoting himself to 
the happiness of his country ? 



Napoleon ne s'est-il pas trompe 
quand, au lieu de se devouer au 
bonheur de son pays, il a voulu 
que l'Europe le craignit et Pad- 
mirdt. 



1233. The Pluperfect with the Imperfect of the Subjunc- 
tive : 

Napoleon, even on the rock at St. Napoleon, meme au rocher de St. 

Helena, had never doubted that Helene, n'avait jamais doute qu'il 

he was still the idol of the Jut encore l'idole du peuple 

French people. Francais. 



324 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



1233. The Conditional Present with the Imperfect of the 
Subjunctive, and qui : 



There are men who, withouttaking 
the least trouble to make them- 
selves respectable, would like to 
be respected by all. 



II y a des gens qui, sans se donner 
la peine de rien faire qui les 
rende respectables, voudraient 
cependant que chacun les respec- 
tdt. 



1235. The two Conditionals Past with the Imperfect of the 
Subjunctive : 



Who would have supposed that 
you were so foolish as to go and 
bathe yourself in cold water im- 
mediately after dinner. 



Qui aurait or eut cru que xousfus- 
siez assez fou pour aller vous Je- 
ter a 1'eau immediatement apres 
diner. 



1236. The Present of the Indicative with the Preterite of 
the Subjunctive : 

My child, your mother wishes you Mon enfant, votre mere desire que 

to have this drawing done to- vous ayez Jini ce dessin demain ; 

morrow, you have been at it long il y a assez longtems que vous y 

enough. travaillez. 

1237. The Future Absolute with the Preterite of the Sub- 
junctive : 

Hereafter I will arrange my work 
in such a manner that my ne- 
groes may have their task done 
by six o'clock. 



A l'avenir je m'arrangerai de ma- 
niere a ce que mes negres aient 
Jini leur tache a six heures. 



1238. The First and Second Conditionals Past with the 
Pluperfect of the Subjunctive : 



I could never have believed that 
the government would have been 
imprudent enough to run the 
risk of a war with England un- 
der such circumstances. 



Je n'aurais, or je tfeusse jamais 
cru que le gouvernement eut ite 
assez imprudent pour courir le 
risque d'une guerre avec l'An- 
gleterre, dans les circonstances 
ou il se trouve place. 



Observations on the Subjunctive Mood. 

1239. The subjunctive mood is so difficult to foreigners, 
that we think proper to add, to what we have already said, a 
complete treatise upon it, taken from one of our best gramma- 
rians, Mr. A. Ballin ; we hope that the rules and illustrations 
which it contains will be of great service to students. 



VERB. 325 

1240, Examples in which the, Indicative and Subjunctive 
Moods are alternately employed with the same ar- 
rangement of words. 

Indicative. Subjunctive. 

I shall live in a country which I shall live in a country which may 

pleases me, where I shall be quiet, please me, where I may be quiet, 

which I shall be able to travel over which I may be able to trav- 

over without fear, and whose el without fear, and whose tem- 

temperature is pleasant. perature may be pleasant. 

J'habiterai un pays qui me plait, ou J'habiterai un pays qui me plaise, 

je serai tranquille, que jepourrai ou je sois tranquille, que je pu- 

parcourir sans crainte, et dont la isse parcourir sans crainte, et 

temperature est douce. dont la temperature soit douce. 

In the example in which the indicative mood is used, the 
verbs which complete the principal proposition, fhabiterai, are 
used in that mood, because we wish to express an idea which 
is positive and certain ; the person who speaks has no doubt 
about the satisfaction which he will feel, the quietness of the 
country, &c. 

That satisfaction, and that quietness are not things which he 
does not know already, upon which he fixes his mind with de- 
sire, curiosity, or will ; it is exactly as if he wished to say, 

I shall live in a country which I know ; 
I shall be quiet there ; 

I shall be able to travel over it without fear ; 
Its temperature is pleasant, &c. 

In the other example, on the contrary, the same verbs are 

in the subjunctive, because we wish to express ideas which are 

doubtful, things upon which we fix our desire, curiosity, or fear, 

because we do not know the country where we intend to go 

and live, but wish only that it may be as it is represented ; it is 

as if we said, 

I shall live in a country ; 

I wish it may please me ; 

I wish I may be quiet there ; 

I wish I may be able to travel over it, &c. 

In the first instance, the country is known by the speaker, in 
the other it is not ; there is positiveness in the one case, doubt 
in the other, and, according to the principles which we have 
already laid down, the indicative should be used in the former, 
and the subjunctive in the latter. 
28 



326 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



1241. The following examples are constructed according to 
the same principle : 

Indicative. 

I shall give you reasons which will 
convince you ; that is to say, I 
am sure they will convince you, 
because I know them and you 
already. 

Je te donnerai des raisons qui te 
convaincront, c'est a dire, je suis 
sur, persuade qu'elles te convain- 
cront, parceque je connais ces 
raisons ainsi que ton caractere. 



Do you know in this city a man 

who is able to walk nine miles in 

an hour ? 
Connaissez-vous dans cette ville 

un homme qui peut faire neuf 

milles en une heure ? 

Show me the shortest way con- 
ducting to the city. 

Montrez-moi le plus court chemin 
qui conduit a la ville. 

They sent to Delphi deputies who 
consulted Apollo. 

lis envoyerenta Delphes des depu- 
tes qui consulterent Apollon. 

I shall do my duty in such a man- 
ner that nobody will have any 
thing to reproach me with. 

Je ferai mon devoir de maniere 
qu'on n'owra rien a me repro- 
cher. 

Have you read a grammar which 

is better than this ? 
Avez-vous lu une grammaire qui 

est meilleure que celle-ci ? 

How many people we see who are 

proud and impudent. 
Combien voit-on d'hommes, qui 

sont hautains et insolents ! 

Telemachus, proposing to the Dau- 
niens to let Diomedus have the 
country of Arpia to found a col- 
ony there, says: You perceive, 
O Dauniens, that we gave to 
your nation and land a king able 
to raise its glory to the skies ! 
give up, then, since we ask for it, 



Subjunctive. 

I shall give you reasons which 
may convince you ; that is to 
say, I shall do my best to per- 
suade you ; these reasons I do 
not know yet, I will think about 
them. 

Je te donnerai des raisons qui te 
convainquent, c'est a dire, je ferai 
en sorte qu'elles te convain- 
quent ; ces raisons, je ne les 
connais pas encore, je les cher- 
cherai. 

Do you know in this city a man 

who would be able to walk nine 

miles in an hour? 
Connaissez-vous un homme dans 

cette ville, qui puisse faire neuf 

milles en une heure ? 

Show me the shortest way which 
may conduct to the city. 

Montrez-moi le plus court chemin 
qui conduise a la ville. 

They sent to Delphi deputies who 
might consult Apollo. 

lis envoyerent a Delphes des de- 
putes qui consullassent Apollon. 

I shall do my duty in such a man- 
ner that nobody may have any- 
thing to reproach me with. 

Je ferai mon devoir de manidre 
qu'on tiait rien a me reprocher. 

Have you read a grammar which 
might be better than this ? 

Avez-vous lu une grammaire qui 
soit meilleure que celle-ci ? 

How many people we see who are 

modest and kind ! 
Combien voit-on d'hommes qui 

soient modestes et bons ! 

Diomedus says to the allied prin- 
ces : If you are compassionate, 
do not refuse me, from those 
vast regions, some plots of bar- 
ren sand, some deserts, some 
sandy fields, or steep rocks, 
where I may found, with my 
friends, a city, which may bear 



VERB. 



327 



a country useless to you, to a 
king who is worthy of all sup- 
port. 

Vous voyez, O Dauniens, que nous 
avons donne a, votre terre et a 
votre nation, un roi capable d'en 
elever la gloire jusqu'aux cieux ; 
donnez aussi, puisque nous le 
demandons, une terre qui vous 
est inutile, k un roi qui est digne 
de toutes sortes de secours. 



Philocles asked of the king to re- 
tire near Salente, in a solitude, 
where he continued to live mis- 
erably as he had lived in Samos. 

Philocles demanda au roi de se re- 
tirer aupres de Salente, dans une 
solitude, ou il continua a vivre 
pauvrement, comme il avait ve- 
cu a Samos. 

One day, at the bottom of a valley, 
a snake bit John Freron ; what 
was the consequence, do you 
think ? it was the snake that died. 

Un jour, dans le fond d'un vallon, 
Un serpent mordit Jean Freron ; 
Que pensez-vous qu'il arriva ? 
Ce fut le serpent qui creva. 

Has any report been circulated of 
an execrable deed ? The least 
suspicion renders its accom- 
plishment probable to your mind. 
Pensez-vous qu'il s'agit d'un forfait 
execrable ? 
Un vain bruit, un soup$on vous le 
rend vraisemblable. 

Do you think that his patronage is 

of much use to me ? 
Pensez-vous que sa protection m' 

est tres necessaire ? 

Think only that this is a game in 

which every one loses. 
Figurez-vous que o'est un jeu oU 

tout le monde perd. 



at least a sad resemblance to our 
lost country ; we ask only for a 
little space of ground which may 
be useless to you. 
Si vous etes sensibles a la com- 
passion, ne me refusez pas, dans 
ces vastes pays, quelque coin de 
terre sterile, quelques deserts, 
quelques sables, ou quelques ro- 
chers escarpes, pour y fonder, 
avec mes compagnons, une ville 
qui soit du moins une triste im- 
age de notre patrie perdue ; nous 
ne demandons qu'un peu d'es- 
pace qui vous soit inutile. 

He asked liberty to retire to a sol- 
itude, where he might continue 
to live miserably. 

II demanda de se retirer dans une 
solitude, ou il continudt a vivre 
pauvrement. 



If bitten by a snake, what do you 
think might happen to me, if I 
did not take proper remedies? 

Mordu par un serpent, que pensez- 
vous qui m'arrivdt, si je ne pre- 
nais pas les remedes convena- 
bles ? 

Do you hear the noise in the 
streets, do you think it is about 
any thing important ? 

Entendez-vous le bruit qui se fait 
dans les rues, pensez-vous qu'il 
s'agisse de quelque chose d'im- 
portant ? 

Do you think that his patronage 
might be of some use to me ? 

Pensez-vous que sa protection me 
soit tres necessaire ? 

Only think that this is a game 
where every one has to lose. 

Figurez-vous que ce soit un jeu ou 
tout le monde perde. 



With the verbs dire, to say, pretendre, to pretend, and en- 
tendre, to hear, when taken in their most natural meaning, the 



328 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

indicative is used, but when expressing a strong determination 
of the mind, it is the subjunctive which they govern ; as, 

Indicative. Subjunctive. 

I shall say that he does his duty. I shall say that he must do his duty. 

Je dirai qu'il fait son devoir. Je dirai qu'il fasse son devoir. 

I pretend to say that his right is in- I mean to be obeyed. 

disputable. 

Je pretends que son droit est incon- Je pritends qu'on m'obeisse. 

testable. 

I hear that it is a woman who sings. I intend that you shall do that. 

Ventends que e'est une femme qui Ventends que ce soit vous quifassiez 

chante. cela. 

1242. According to the preceding illustrations, it is easily 
perceived, that, in order to ascertain if a verb must be used in 
the subjunctive mood, we must not consider the material 
arrangement of words alone, or the form of the principal 
proposition, but enter into the meaning of the whole sen- 
tence, which will decide always whether the subjunctive or 
the indicative mood should be used ; and if the principal prop- 
osition is joined to the incidental, with one of the relative 
pronouns qui, que, auquel, duquel, dont, ou, or the conjunction 
que, we must examine, if the incidental proposition signifies 
any thing certain, positive, or expresses a doubt, an uncer- 
tainty ; in the former case the indicative must be employed, 
and in the latter the subjunctive ; if you say, 

How is it ? You do not believe that Comment ? Vous ne croyez pas 
I shall be able to conquer this que je pourrai resister a cette 
grief? douleur ? 

the person who speaks has no doubt about his being able to 
resist the grief ; but when we say, 
Comment ? Vous ne croyez pas que je puisse resister a cette douleur ? 

he who speaks is himself in doubt of his being able to resist it, 
and the subjunctive shows it. 

In sentences which seem affirmative, we ought to consider 
whether the affirmation is conditional or not ; as in the following : 

Indicative. Subjunctive. 

Do you think anyone can say that Do you think any one could say 
I have deceived him ? that I deceived him ? 

Croyez-vous que quelqu'un peut dire Croyez-vous que quelqu'un puisse 
que je Yai trompe ? dire que je Vaie trompe ? 

(He has not deceived any body.) (He has deceived, but hopes not 

to be detected.) 



VERB. 329 

Do you not think that an honest man Do you not think that an honest 

is more estimable than a rogue ? man may be better than a rogue ? 

Croyez-vous qu'un honnete homme Croyez-vous qu'un honnete homme 

n'est pas plus estimable qu'un ne soit pas plus estimable qu'un 

fripon ? fripon ? 

(The individual who speaks re- (Here there is a question put, 

gards it as a fact, that an honest with a doubt as to the answer.) 
man is better than a rogue.) 

Name the citizens whom I have kept Name the citizens whom I have 

in chains. kept in chains. 

Nommez les citoyens que j'ai rete- Nommez les citoyens que yaie rete- 

nus dans les fers. nus dans les fers. 

(He has kept citizens in chains. ) (He has kept no citizens in chains. ) 

1243. We can easily discern, from the preceding illustra- 
tions, that it is in the mind that we must look for the motives 
that induce us to employ either of these moods, rather than in 
the construction of the sentence. 

1244. In the following examples we shall discover some 
new principles to guide us, in the use of the indicative or sub- 
junctive mood. 

It seems to me that this piece of It seems to me as if my heart would 

wood is about to split in two. split in two. 

II me semble que ce bois veut se II me semble que mon cceur veuille 

fendre par la moitie. se fendre par la moitie. 

It seems to me, does it not, that this It seems to me that, according to 

piece of wood will split well ? your mind, this piece of wood 

splits well. 

II me semble, n'est-ce-pas, que ce II me semble, a vous entendre, que 

bois sefendra bien ? ce bois se fende bien. 

The indicative, in the first two sentences, shows that the 
person who speaks has no doubt as to the wood splitting well, 
and in the others the subjunctive is there to show, that not 
only doubt is existing in the mind of the speaker, but even, 
that he thinks the wood will not split any more than the heart 
will burst. 

1245. A severe criticism has been made on the following 

verses of Boileau, by some grammarians, for his having made 

use of the subjunctive ; 

One would say that the heavens, which pour down their waters, 
Intended to cover this country with a new deluge. 
On dirait que le ciel, qui se fond tout en eau, 
Veuille inonder ces lieux d'un deluge nouveau. 

One would say, that, in order to please, 
Homer, instructed by nature, has stolen the belt of Venus. 
On dirait, que, pour plaire, instruit par la nature, 
Homere ait a Venus derobe sa ceinture. 

28* 



330 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

But we think, that this expression on dirait que, one would 
say, being but a vague affirmation, it is the subjunctive which 
is required by the mind. The poet does not mean, that the 
heavens wish really to inundate the country with a deluge, or 
that Homer has, in fact, stolen the belt of Venus ; for a deluge 
here is not likely to come, and the robbery of Venus's belt is 
impossible ; it is that improbability and impossibility from 
which arise the doubt and indecision which require the sub- 
junctive mood. 

1246. Bossuet has said, 

One would say, that the book of the On dirait, que le livre des decrets 
eternal laws has been opened to eternels ait ete ouvert aux pro- 
the prophets, phetes, 

with the subjunctive, because it is impossible for a man to read 
in the book of eternal laws. We say also, 

What magnificent fireworks ! (one Quel beau feu d'artifice ! (on dirait, 

would have said, or believed,) ou eut dit, ou eut cru,) il sem- 

for it seemed that the stars were blait que toutes les etoiles tom- 

falling in crowds from heaven, bassent des cieux, 

with the subjunctive, because it is impossible for the stars to 
fall from heaven. 

1247. But even with on croirait or any other doubtful ex- 
pression, the indicative should be employed, if we speak of 
things which are probable or possible, because then this affirma- 
tion takes a determinate character ; as, 

One would say, or believe, orit seems, On dirait, ou croirait, il semble, que 
that this man is crazy, or deaf. cet homme est fou, est sourd. 

It seems that life is a gift which we II semble que la vie est un bien que 
receive only to transmit to others. nous nerecevons que pourle trans- 

mettre a d'autres. 

1248. With the two impersonal verbs, il parait, it appears, 
il est probable, it is probable, the indicative mood is always 
used, except when employed negatively. 

It appears that you are sick. II parait que vous etes malade. 

It is probable that you have the II est probable que vous avez la 

gout. goute. 

It does not appear that you are sick. II ne parait pas que vous soyez 

malade. 

It is not probable that you have the II n'est pas probable que vous ayez 

gout. la goute. 

1249. By one of the eccentricities of the language, with 



VERB. 



331 



the verb sembler, to seem, 
semblait, &c, it seems, 
always employed ; as. 

They seem to have gathered the 
whole world there. 

It seems that at all times truth has 
been afraid to show itself to man, 
and man has been afraid of it. 

It seems that the veil embellishes a 
young girl. 

It seemed as if these deserts had 
lost their wild appearance. 

It seemed as if God would make 
France expiate her proud pros- 
perity. 



used impersonally, as, il semble, il 
it seemed, the subjunctive is not 



II semile qu'on ait la rassemble 
l'univers. 

II semble que de tout temps la verite 
ait eu peur de se montrer aux 
hommes, et que les hommes aient 
eu peur de la verite. 

// semble que le voile embellisse une 
jeune fille. 

II semblait que ces deserts tfeussent 
plus rien de sauvage. 

if semblait que Dieu voulut faire ex- 
pier a la France ses prosperites 
orgueilleuses. 



1250. But if the verb sembler is accompanied by a pronoun 
as an object, then the character of uncertainty, of vagueness, 
which is proper to the impersonal form, disappears, and au- 
thorizes the use of the indicative ; as, 



It seems to me that you are sick. 
It seems to us that you ought to 
apologize to your father. 



II me semble que vous ctes malade. 
II nous semble que vous devez faire 
des excuses a votre pere. 



1251. Provided, that what is spoken of is not improbable 
or impossible, because then, the subjunctive is indispensable ; 
as in the following phrase of Madame de Sevigne, 

It seems to me, that my heart is II me semble que mon cceur se fende 
about to break in two. en deux. 

1252. However, when the verb which follows il semble, it 
seems, is in the imperfect, or in the conditional, the indicative 
is used, as in the following sentences, 



It seems that they wished to cover 
it in obscurity, by abolishing what 
was the proof of it. 

The ancients did not pay much 
attention to infancy; it seems 
that they found that there were 
some things too childish in the 
clothes which cover a cradle. 

It seems that I ought to have given 
these directions at the beginning 
of my work on logic. 



II semble qu'on voulait en couvrir 
Pobscurite, en abolissant ce qui 
en etait la preuve. 

Les anciens n'arrGtaient pas long- 
terns les yeux sur l'enfance; il 
semble qu'ils trouvaient quelque 
chose de trop naif dans les langes 
d'un berceau. 

II semble que ^aurais du avoir donne 
ces avis au commencement de 
mon ouvrage sur la logique. 



1253. The verbs croire, to believe, dire, to say, supposer, 
to suppose, sHmaginer, to think, &c, used with si, if, and que, 



332 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



that, sometimes govern the indicative, sometimes the subjunc- 
tive ; as, 

If you think that the soul is immor- Si vous croyez que l'ame est, or soit, 
tal, &c. immortelle, &c. 

If you say that the world is the Si vous dites que le monde est, or 
result of chance, &c. soit le resultat du hasard, &c. 

If one supposes that matter may Si Ton suppose que la matiere peut, 
think or not, &c. or puisse, penser, &c. 

All these modes of expression are correct, but only in 
their proper places, which must be determined by the mind of 
the person who speaks. 

1254. From what precedes, we must conclude that the 
subjunctive is a mood of doubt, that it serves to express what 
is vague and uncertain ; and as the will, desire, and necessity, 
can relate only to things which are not positive, and which 
generally are doubtful, and refer to the future ; this mood 
serves to express a situation, an action depending on the will 
of others, or a will, either positive or negative ; such is, in 
general, the manner in which it is employed in our language. 

Thus it is used after the verbs which express : 

1255. 1st. An idea of doubt, of interrogation, or negation ; 
but the interrogation must be really such, and not a mere form 
used for an affirmation, as in the following verses : 

Pensez-xous qu'il s'agit d'un forfait execrable ? 

Un vain bruit, un soupcon vous le rend vraisemblable. 

Where there is no doubt in the mind of the speaker, who 
means only this : 

The question is a dreadful crime, do you not think so ? 
Thus we say : 



I doubt, 
It is possible, 
It is doubtful, 
It is difficult, 
Do you believe, 
Do you think, 
I do not believe, 
I do not think, 
I do not see, 
I deny 
It is not 



je doute 

ll est possible 

ilest douteux 

il est difficile 

croyez-vous 

pensez-vous 

je ne crois pas 

je ne pense pas 

je ne vois pas 

je nie 

ce n 'est pas 



It does not appear il ne parait pas 
It does not seem il ne semble pas 
It is little c'est peu 



that he will do that, qu'il fasse 
cela. 



VERB. 



333 



1256. 2d. The will, the necessity (what is required by cir- 
cumstances), and consequently fear, astonishment; as, 



je veux 
j'ordonne 
j'entends 
je pretends 
je defends 

j'empeche 

je souhaite 

je desire 

je demande 

j'exige 

j'aime 

j 'admire 

j'approuve 

je consens 

je permets 

je trouve bon 

je trouve mauvais 

je prie 

je supplie 

il faut 

il est necessaire 

il est bon 

il est juste 

il est indispensable 

je crains 

j'apprehende 

je redoute 

je tremble 

j'ai peur 

je m'etonne 

il est etonnant 

il est surprenant 

il est curieux 

il est extraordinaire 



I will, 
I order 
I mean 
I pretend 
I forbid 

I hinder 

I wish 

I desire 

I demand 

I require 

I love 

I admire 

I approve 

I consent 

I permit 

I find no fault 

I find fault 

I pray 

I beg 

He must 

It is necessary 

It is well 

It is just 

It is indispensable 

I fear 

I apprehend 

I dread 

I tremble 

I am afraid 

I am astonished 

It is astonishing 

It is surprising 

It is strange 

It is extraordinary 

We say also 

I am delighted 

I am rejoiced 

I am satisfied 

I am joyous 

I am satisfied 

I am glad 

I am sorry 

I am grieved 

I am mortified 

I am chagrined 

I am surprised 

I see with pleasure je vois avec plaisir 

I see with pain je vois avec peine 



je suis ravi 
je suis rejoui 
je suis content 
je suis joyeux 
je suis satisfait 
je suis aise 
je suis fache 
je suis peine 
je suis mortifle 
je suis chagrin 
je suis surpris 



'.that he may do that, qu'il fasse 
f cela. 

{ that he may do that, qu'il ne 
1 1 fasse cela. 



that he may do that, qu'il fasse 
cela. 



! that I will do that, qu'il ne 
fasse cela. 



that he will do that, qu'il fasse 
cela. 



that he does that, qu'il fasse 
cela. 



The second verb expresses something positive, an action 



334 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



which is performed ; for it is as if we said : II fait cela, fen suis 
ravi, he does that, I am delighted with it. In English, the affirm- 
ative or indicative mood is used in such cases ; but in French, 
the subjunctive is employed, because the action performed by 
the verb of the incidental sentence depends on a positive or 
negative will expressed by that of the principal. 

1257. 3d. After certain expressions called conjunctive, 
which awake an idea of doubt, futurity, negation, supposition, 
fear; as, 

C Before he does that. 
( Avant qu'il fasse cela. 

C In order that he may do that. 
( Afin qu'il fasse cela. 

C For him to do that. 
t Pour qu'il fasse cela. 

C Until he does that. 

\ Jusqu'a ce qu'il fasse cela. 

C Not that he does that. 
\ Non pas qu'il fasse cela. 

C Not that he does that. 
( Non qu'il fasse cela. 

But he may do that. 
Sans qu'il fasse cela. 

C Far from doing that. 
( Loin qu'il fasse cela. 

If he does ever so little. 

Si peu qu'il fasse cela. 

u <( 

C In the case where he will do that. 
I En cas qu'il fasse cela. 

C Suppose that he does that. 
( Suppose qu'il fasse cela. 

C Provided he will do that. 
( Pourvii qu'il fasse cela. 

C Whether he does that. 
I Soit qu'il fasse cela. 

c Unless he does that. 

( A moins qu'il ne fasse cela. 

C For fear that he does that. 
I De peur qu'il ne fasse cela. 



Before 


avant que 


In order 


afin que 


For 


pour que 


Until 


jusqu'a ce que 


Not that 


non pas que 


u 


non que 


But 


sans que 


Far from 


loin que 


Ever so little 


si peu que 


<( 


pour peu que 


In the case where en cas que 


Suppose that 


suppose que 


Provided that 


pourvu que 


Whether 


soit que 


Unless 


a moins que 


For fear 


de peur que 


<( 


de crainte que 



VERB. 



335 



Observations. 



1258. We say : 

Although he does that, 

Whatever he may do, 



{Senqul \ i] fasse cela " 

C Quoi qu'il fasse. 

< Quelque chose qu'il fasse. 

C Quelle que soit la chose qu'il fasse. 

So that, after quoique, Men que, quoi que, quelque que, 

and quel-que, we also use the subjunctive. 

After although, the English use the indicative mood, be- 
cause the meaning of the verb which follows it is positive ; as, 
He goes out, although he is sick. II sort quoiqu'il soit malade. 

1259. 2d. Que, used for ajin que, a moins que, sans que, 
and de peur que, also governs the subjunctive. 

1260. 3d. A great number of impersonal verbs govern the 
same mood ; as, 



It is enough for me that a man is 
unhappy, to visit him. 

We say : 

There are only men and monkeys 
who have eyelashes to their lids. 

There is no satisfaction which is 
equal to that of a good action. 

There is no rank, no fortune which 
will atone for low inclinations. 

Telemachus is the finest work with 
which virtue has inspired a man 
of genius. 

The best possession that a prince 
can have is the hearts of his sub- 
jects. 

Lucullus brought from the kingdom 
of Pont the first cherry trees 
which were seen in Europe. 

You are the only one who could con- 
sole me for the absence of Rica. 



II suffit qu'un homme soit malheu- 
reux pour que je me rapproche de 
lui. 



II n'y a que l'homme et le singe qui 
aient des cils aux deux paupieres. 

II rCy aucun plaisir qui vaille celui 
d'une bonne action. 

11 rCy a ni rang, ni fortune qui puis- 
sent racheter de basses inclina- 
tions. 

Telemaque est leplus lei ouvrage que 
la vertu ait inspire au genie. 

Le meilleur corUge <?w'un prince pu- 
isse avoir, c'est le cceur de ses su- 
jets. 

Lucullus apporta du royaume de 
Pont les premiers cerisiers qui aient 
He" vus en Europe. 

Vous etes le seul qui put me de- 
dommager de l'absence de Rica. 

1261. In these illustrations, the subjunctive is used, although 
the idea expressed by the second verb is more positive than 
doubtful, for it is certain that men and monkeys have lashes 
to their eyes ; that no satisfaction is equal to that of a good ac- 
tion ; that neither rank nor fortune may atone for low inclina- 



336 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

tions, &c. But grammarians have established as a rule, that 
when any of the pronouns qui, que, dont, duquel, auquel, ou, 
have for their antecedent a noun preceded by a superlative, or 
one of the adjectives nul, aucun, or the negative substantives, 
personne, rien, seul, unique, we ought to use the subjunctive. 
The reason for this rule is, that a comparison between two or 
several objects, whatever may be the nature of that comparison, 
is the result of a state of doubt in the mind ; that even exami- 
nation without comparison is also the result of a doubt ; for we 
should not examine if we were sure ; the mind, in these opera- 
tions, wavers and is unsettled before deciding or pronouncing a 
judgment ; the expression of that doubt should be dubitative, 
and the subjunctive is the instrument to convey this situation of 
the mind to others. 

1262. But, if the verb of the second proposition presents a 
fact as positive, evident, undeniable, as really existing, then 
the indicative is used, whatever may be the form of the prin- 
cipal proposition ; thus, although we say, 

Paris is the finest city I know, Paris est la plus belle ville que je 

connaisse, 

because there is a doubt in the mind arising from the fact, that 
although now, according to the amount of his knowledge, he 
considers Paris the finest city, at some future day he may see 
another city still finer than Paris, and Paris then will lose its 
rank in his estimation. 

1263. But we should say : 

Of all these cities, it is the finest De toutes ces villes, c'est la plus 
that I know, belle que je connais ; 

meaning, 

I know the finest of these cities, Je connais la plus belle de ces villes, 

or, 

The finest of these cities is that La plus belle de ces villes est celle 
which I know. que je connais. 

Calypso, tired of life, and condemned to immortality, might 
have said : 

I am the only one who cannot die. II rCy a que moi qui ne pent pas mou- 

rir. 



VERB. 337 

We may equally say, for the same reasons as above : 

The only pain I have is in my foot. La seule douleur que je ressens, est 

au pied. 

This favor, my lord, is not the only Ce service, monseigneur, n'est pas 

one which we expect from you. le seul qu'on attend de vous. 

Tender youth is the only age when La tendre jeunesse est le seul age ou 

man may have sufficient power l'homme peut encore tout sur lui 

over himself to improve his na- meme, pour se corriger. 
ture. 

This is, without doubt, the least of Voila sans doute la moindre de vos 

your qualities ; but, Madam, it is qualites ; mais, Madame, c'est la 

the only one of which I could seule dont j'aipu parler avec quel- 

speak from actual knowledge. que connaissance. 

Locke is the only one whom I think Locke est le seul que je crois devoir 

I ought to except. excepter. 



The following will answer several questions respecting the 
Subjunctive. 

1264. Must we say : 

The maternal tongue is the first La langue maternelle est la premiere 
which we ought to learn, qu'on doit, or qu'on doive appren- 

dre ? 

If we speak in general, without addressing anybody, or direct- 
ing him as to what he must do in the case, the indicative is 
used ; but if consulted upon the matter, and the above sentence 
is given as an answer, it implies a sort of command, obligation, 
and requires the subjunctive, because it is the result of a com- 
parison between the several languages, and consequently it is 
doubtful which is the best to begin with. 

1265. Must we say : 

If I owe this sum, I will pay it, Si c'est moi qui dois or doive cette 

somme, je la paierai ? 

The subjunctive mood would show, that the person who 
speaks, does not know whether he owes the money or not ; he 
means to say ; if after an investigation it is decided that I owe 
the money, I shall pay. With the indicative, on the contrary, 
he knows very well that he owes the money, and means to say : 
since I owe the money, 1 shall pay it. 

If it is true that Homer was the S'il est vrai qu'Homere ait or a fait 
author of Virgil, it is his first Virgile, c'est son plus bel ou- 
production. vrage. 

29 



338 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

With the subjunctive, the sentence means : if, after suffi- 
cient researches, we come to the conclusion that Homer was the 
author of Virgil, &c. With the indicative, on the contrary, 
it signifies, since it is a fact, that Homer was the author of 
Virgil, &c. Here there is no doubt ; it is a mere affirmation. 
The same mode of reasoning is applicable to all sentences con- 
structed in this manner. 

1266. After the verb ordonner, to order, can we use in- 
differently the subjunctive or the conditional ? 

We use them both, according to the idea we wish to ex- 
press ; as, 

The governor ordered that we Le gouverneur ordonna que nous 

should go to Thebes to be intro- irions jusqu'a Thebes pour etre 

duced to the King. presenters au Roi. 

Servius ordered that the people Servius ordonna qu'on assembldt le 

should be assembled immediate- peuple par centuries pour march- 

ly to march to defend his friend. er immediatement a la defense 

de son ami. 

The conditional shows that the action expressed by the verb 
is not to take place immediately, but at a period more or less 
remote ; whereas the subjunctive ought to be used if the verb 
expresses an action which is to be executed immediately. 

1267. What difference exists between the signification of 
the three following sentences ? 

I did not know that you Je ne savais pas que vous fussiez poete. 
were a poet. " " £tiez " 

« « etes " 

I would say, je ne savais pas que vous fussiez poete, to a 
young man, if I had just understood, without any certainty, 
that he was a poet ; the subjunctive, used in this case, shows 
plainly, doubt, ignorance, uncertainty in the mind. 

If a young man presents me with a piece of poetry, the un- 
certainty, the vagueness, vanishes at once, positiveness takes 
the place of doubt in the mind, but in reference to a time past, 
agreeing with that period in which the young man exercised his 
muse, and I say to him : Je ne savais pas que vous etiez poete, 
which means, 1 did not know that when you pleased you could 
write poetry. 

I then look at some of the young man's poetry, it appears to 
me good, elegant, full of fire and harmony, of an elevated and 



VERB. 339 

chastened style, I feel enthusiastic about him, and I say : you 
are indeed a poet, but I did not know it ; je ne savais pas que 
vous etes po'ete ! It is thus that the operations of the mind com- 
pel us so often to put together tenses which at first appear 
not to be adapted to each other, so as to express our different 
feelings. According to the same principle we say : 

This philosopher was a fool, he did Ce philosophe etait bien insense, il 
not believe in the existence of a ne croyait pas qu'il y a un Dieu. 
God. 

This sentence signifies, God exists, and this philosopher is 
mad enough not to believe it ; this is an assertion of a positive 
fact, the existence of God, hence the indicative. 

1268. Why do we say, 

I doubt if he comes. Je doute qu'il vienne. 

I think he will come. Je me doute qu'il viendra. 

I wait for him to come. J'attends qu'il vienne. 

I expect him to come. Je m'attends qu'il viendra. 

I am sorry that Paul is coming. Je suis fache de ce que Paul vient. 

I am sorry that Paul will come. Je suis fache que Paul vienne. 

I am surprised, &c. Je suis surpris, &c. ? 



Doubter, to doubt, comes from the Latin, dubitare, to hesi- 
tate, that is, not to know which way to take ; thus, when I say, 
je me doute que Paul viendra, 1 express that, although I am 
confident that Paul will come, yet I feel some anxiety about it, 
therefore doubt is attached to myself and not to Paul's com- 
ing, and this last action is affirmatively expressed by the indica- 
tive ; but when T say, je doute que Paul vienne, it is no more 
upon myself that the doubt rests, it is upon Paul's coming, 
and this last idea must be rendered by the subjunctive, so as to 
convey this state of the mind. 

Je m'attends, according to the Latin etymology, me tendo ad, 
signifies I dispose myself to. Thusje m' attends que Paul vien- 
dra, means, I dispose myself to see Paul coming, the comple- 
ment of i" dispose is myself, and the sentence signifies : je me 
dispose a ceci ; Paul viendra ; the incidental proposition is not 
then reached by the verb of the first, and remains certain, pos- 
itive ; hence the indicative. But when I say, /' attends que Paul 
vienne, the verb of the first proposition has no complement ex- 
cept the coming of Paul ; which is then submitted to the in- 



340 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

fluence of that verb, and receives the full effect of its doubtful 
meaning ; hence the subjunctive. 

When I say : je suis fache or content de ce que Paul vient ; 
je suis fache or content has for its complement de ce, or de 
cela ; it is as if this was, je suis fache, content, de ceci, qui est, 
Paul vient ; I am sorry, satisfied with this, which is, Paul 
is coming. But when I say : je suis fache que Paul vienne, 
the incidental sentence is the only complement ofje suis fache^ 
and requires it to be placed in the subjunctive. 



Of the use of the Tenses in the Subjunctive Mood, 

The Present of the Subjunctive expresses 
A Present. 

1269. In this phrase : 

I do this work against my will, but Je fais cet ouvrage malgre moi, 
I must do it. mais il faut bien que je le fasse. 

Que je le fasse expresses here a present ; this proposition 
depends on il faut, which is also in the present. 
A Future. 
In the following : 

I must do this work to-morrow. 11 faut, or il faudra que je fasse 

cet ouvrage demain. 

The same proposition, que je fasse, expresses a future, and 
depends on il faut, il faudra, which, are one in the present, 
the other in the future. 

1270. Therefore we may lay down this rule : 

When the verb of the principal proposition is in the present 
or in the future, that of the incidental proposition, which is in 
the subjunctive, is placed in the present of this mood to ex- 
press either a present or a future. 

Examples. 

1271. Present : 

He who speaks must place himself 11 faut que celui qui parle se metie 
on a level with those who listen a la portee de ceux qui 1'ecou- 
to him. tent. 



VERB. 



341 



1272. Future : 

They will be obliged to yield to the 
power of truth when they shall 
have permitted it to appear in 
all its splendor. 

1273. Future : 

I will not suffer you, O Teleraa- 
chus,. to fall into a fault which 
makes a man unfit to govern. 



1274. Present : 

Whatever liberty a man has, he 
ought never to misuse it. 



Jlfaudra qu'ils se rendent a. la force 
de la verite, quand ils auront 
permis qu'elle paraisse dans tout 
son eclat. 



Je ne souffrirai point, O Telemaque, 
que vous tombiez dans ce defaut 
qui rend un homme inhabile 
pour le gouvernement. 



Qudque liberte qu'on ait, il nefaut 
jamais en abuser. 



1275. The Preterite of the Subjunctive expresses 
In this phrase : 

1276. A Past : 

You must have done this work bad- 11 faut que vous ayez mal fait cet 
ly, since they have not been ouvrage puisqu'on w'en a pas ete 
pleased with it. content. 

Que vous ayez mal fait expresses a past, referring to ilfaut, 
which is in the Present. 
In the following : 

1277. Past : 



You must have done this work with 
pleasure, for you have done it in 
a very short time. 

1278. Past : 

Although you have done this work 
in a very little while, it has ap- 
peared superior to any other. 



11 a fallu que vous ayez fait cet 
ouvrage avec plaisir, puisque 
vous Vavezfini en si peu de terns. 



Quoique vous ayez fait cet ouvrage 
en tres peu de terns, il a pant 
superieur a touts les autres. 

In these two sentences, que vous ayez fait expresses a past 
which is indefinite, and corresponds to the verb of the principal 
proposition, il a fallu, il a paru, which are both in the preter- 
ite indefinite of the indicative. 

1279. If, instead of the subjunctive, we used the indicative, 
by changing the form of the sentence, we should have, for the 
first phrase : 

29* 



342 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

1280. Past : 

You have done this work badly ; it Vous avez mal fait cet ouvrage ; il 
must be so, for they have not ]e faut bien, puisqu'on n'en a pas 
been pleased with it. 4te content. 

For the second : 

1281. Past: 

You have done this work with Vous avez fait cette ouvrage avec 

pleasure ; it must have been so, plaisir ; il Va bien fallu, puisque 

since you have done it in so short vous Vavez fini en si peu de terns, 
a time. 

For the third : 

1282. Past: 

You have done this work in a very Vous avez fait cet ouvrage en tres 
short time, and in spite of that peu de terns, et malgre cela il a 
it has appeared superior to others. paru superieur a tous les autres. 

1283. We see, then, that the preterite of the subjunctive 
may be constructed with the preterite indefinite of the indica- 
tive, whence we may draw this conclusion, that the form of 
the tense alone changes, according to circumstances, to obey 
the impulse of the mind, in the following manner : 

J'ai fait, into que j'aie fait. 
Tu as fait, " que tu aies fait. 
II a fait, " qu'il ait fait, &c. 

1284. The same remark is applicable to the other tenses of 
the subjunctive : 

You must have done this work to- II faut, or il faudra, que tu aies fait 
morrow at twelve o'clock, cet ouvrage demain a midi. 

In this example, que tu aies fait expresses a future referring 
to il faut, il faudra, which are, one in the present, the other 
in the future ; we may, then, lay down the following rule : 

1285. When the verb of the principal proposition is in the 
present, in the preterite indefinite, or in the future, of the 
indicative, and we wish to express a past or a future, the verb 
of the incidental proposition ought to be placed in the preterite 
of the subjunctive. 

Examples. 

1286. Past : 

I am sorry he has said this. Je suis fache qu'il ait dit cela. 



VERB, 343 



1287. Past 



Whatever may be the unknown En quelque endroit des terres incon- 

land where the tempests, or the nues que la tempete, ou la colere 

anger of the gods, have thrown ties dieuxV ait jette, je saurai hien 

him, I shall know how to rescue Ten retirer. 
him. 

1288. Future : 

If you wait for Philocles to have Si vous attendez que Philocles ait 

conquered the island of Carpathia, conquis File de Carpathie, il ne 

it will be too late then to stop his sera plus temps d'arreter ses des- 

designs. seins. 



Of the Imperfect of the Subjunctive. 

The Imperfect of the Subjunctive expresses 

1289. A Past : 

In the following sentence, 

I had to do this work from necessity II fallait bien quejefisse cet ouvrage 
while you were walking, lorsque tu te promenais, 

que je jisse expresses a simultaneous past in reference to il 
fallait) and tu te promenais. 

By turning the sentence into the indicative, we should have, 
I did this work while you were walking, and had to do it from necessity. 

In the next, 

1290. Future : 

They wished me to $% On voulait que je Wg*^ 

do this work, I to _J now . Me cet ouvrage, \ J^ 

que je jisse expresses a future as to on voulait, which is in the 
past. 

In the following, 

1291. Present with aussitot. Future with ensuite : 

It would have been well that I had II aurait ite bon que je jisse cela 
done that at once, afterwards ; aussitot, ensuite ; 

1292. Present with a present. Future with demain : 

It would be well that I might do II serait bon que je Jisse cela a pre- 
that now, to-morrow, sent, demain, 

que je fisse expresses a present or a future conditional in refer- 



344 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

ence to il aurait ete bon, il serait bon, which are, one in the 
conditional past, the other in the conditional present. 

Therefore, in the preceding illustrations, the verb of the 
incidental sentence, used in the subjunctive, expresses either 
a simultaneous past, or a past posterior to another past, of to 
a conditional present and past. 

] 293. We shall, then, lay down the following rule ; 

When the verb of the principal proposition is in the past or 
in one of the conditionals, that which is in the subjunctive is 
placed in the imperfect if we have to express an action in the 
present or in the future in regard to the first verb. 

Examples. 

1294. Present : 

Caligula forced the Romans to pay Caligula voulait que Ies Romains 
him divine honors. lui rendissent des honneurs divins„ 

1295. Future : 

I wish sincerely that new successes Je <^*mms sincerement que de nou- 
might silence envy. veaux succes fissent taire l'envie. 

1296. Present : 

The waves seemed to respect Ju- Les flots serriblaient respecter Jupi- 
piter although he was disguised. ter quoiqu'il fut sous une forme 

etrangere. 

I could not believe that this letter Je ne pouvais me persuader que 
was from Philocles. cette lettre fut de Philocles. 

Observations. 

1297. We say, instead of using the Conditional Present : 

I doubt that he would play, if he Je doute qu'il jouat, s'il avait de 
had money. l'argent. 

Je double quHl jouat, is put for je doubte quHl jouerait, be- 
cause, after the verb douter the genius of the language does 
not permit the conditional to be used. 

1298. We say also, instead of using the Imperfect of the 

Indicative : 

I doubt if he was pleased when he Je doute qu'il fut content quand il 
saw such things. voyait de telles choses. 

That is to say, Je doute quHl etait content ; but, as the 

affirmative or indicative cannot be used with douter, we are 

compelled to employ the subjunctive. 



VERB. 



345 



Hence the following rule : 

When the first verb is in the present, the second is placed 
in the imperfect of the subjunctive, if that first verb is such as 
not to allow the conditional or the imperfect of the indicative 
to be placed after it. 

Examples. 

1299. Conditional. 



Monsieur de Grignan etait desole 
hier, il aurait donne sa part aux 
chiens, mais je doute qu'il \a,jetdt 
aujourd'hui. 



Mr. de Grignan was desolate yes- 
terday, he would have given his 
life for a farthing, but I do not 
say that he would do so to-day. 

1300. Imperfect : 

It is rare to find gayety where there On trouve rarement la gaite ou n'est 

is no health ; Scarron was plea- pas la sante ; Scarron etait plai- 

sant, but I hardly believe that he sant, mais je doute qu'il fat gai. 

was gay. 

Andromache speaks of her son who is carried away from 
her, and she intends to say, that he would dry up the tears of 
his mother, if he were near her ; that is what they are afraid 
of ; hence these two verses of Racine : 

1301. Conditional : 

Helas ! On ne craint point qu'il venge un jour son pere ; 
On craint qu'il tfessuydt les larmes de sa mere. 

We also say, 

1302. Past : 

Petrarchus has deserved to be 
crowned at the capital. 

and, 

1303. Present or Future : 



Petrarque a miriti qu'on le couron- 
ndt an capitale. 



Petrarchus deserved to be sung by Petrarque a mdriti que ma muse le 
my muse. chante. 

In the first example, couronnat expresses a past ; the sen- 
tence meaning, They crowned him at the capital, and he de- 
served it. 

In the second, chante expresses a present or a future ; the 
meaning of the sentence being, My muse celebrates him, will 
celebrate him, and he has deserved it. 

Hence the following rule : 

When after a past we wish to express a present or future 



346 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

in an absolute manner, the verb of the principal proposition 
being in the past, that of the -incidental must be in the present 
of the subjunctive. 

Examples. 

1304. Present and Future Absolute : 

God has covered the eyes with Dieu a entoure les yeux de tu- 
transparent coats, in order that niques transparentes, afin qu'on 
we may see through them. puisse voir aii travers. 

1305. Present and Future. 

Go and ask this old man, Whom Allez demander a. ce vieillard, Pour 
do you plant for ? His answer qui plantez-vous ? II vous repon- 
will be, For the immortal gods, dra, Pour les dieux immortels, 
who wished that I might be ben- qui ont voulu que je profite du 
efited by the work of those who travail de ceux qui m'ont precede, 
preceded me, and that those who et que ceux qui me suivront pro- 
will follow me, may also be ben- fitent du mien, 
efited by mine. 

It was one of the most magnificent Cetait une des plus belles fetes que 

feasts that could be seen. l'on puisse voir. 

Speak, I have said nothing which Parle, je n'ai rien dit qui puisse te 

may displease you. deplaire. 

The Candiots, having no king to Les Candiotes n'ayant plus de roi 
govern them, have resolved to pour les gouverner, ont resolu 
choose one now, who will keep, d'en choisir un qui conserve dans 
in all their purity, the established toute leur purete les lois eta- 
laws, blies. 

1306. Pluperfect of the Subjunctive : 
In the following sentence, 

I was obliged to have this work II falloit que feusse fini cet ouvrage 
done before he arrived, avant qu'il arrivat, 

que feusse fini expresses a time past previous to another. 

You ought to have done this work 11 faudrait que vous eussiez fait cet 
yesterday, for now it is too late. ouvrage hier, car maintenant il 

est trop tard. 

Que vous eussiez fait expresses a past depending on a con- 
dition. 

In the next, 

I am obliged to have this work done 11 faudrait que feusse fini cet ouv- 
to-morrow before twelve o'clock, rage demain avant midi, si je 
if I wish to go, voulais partir, 

que feusse fini expresses a future anterior, conditional. 

1307. Therefore the following rule may be established : 



VERB. 347 

When the verb of the principal proposition is in the past, 
or in the conditional present, the verb of the incidental is 
placed in the pluperfect of the subjunctive, if we wish to 
express a past anterior, a conditional past, or a future ante- 
rior, conditional. 

Observations. 

1308. We say : 

I doubt that you would have done Je doute que vous eussiez fait cet 

this work if some one had not ouvrage si Ton ne vous avait pas 

helped you. aide. 

I doubt if you could have done this Je doute que vous eussiez fait cet 

work to-morrow by twelve o'clock, ouvrage demain a midi si l'on ne 

if no one had helped you. vous aidait pas. 

Vous eussiez fait, in these sentences, is used instead of 
vows auriez fait, which cannot be said after a verb governing 
the subjunctive. 

And in the following, 

I should have lost my fortune if J'ewsse perdu ma fortune, si l'on 
they had brought me to that place, m'etit conduit dans ce lieu, 

feusse is for faurais, and eut for avait. 

Examples. 

I do not think that this affair would Je ne pense pas que cette affaire eut 
have succeeded without your pro- reussi sans votre protection, 
tection. 

Eut reussi is here for aurait reussi, which cannot be used 
with je ne pense pas. 

What would have become of me Que serais-je aujourd'hui, si je 
to-day, had I not put a stop to my n'ewsse mis un terme a la faiblesse 
mother's indulgence ? de ma mere ? 

1309. From what precedes this long digression, it results 
clearly, that we can never say, positively, that such a tense 
of the subjunctive must be employed with such tense of the 
indicative or conditional. 

The subjunctive is always determined by the verb of the 
principal proposition, or by the conjunction which unites it to 
that of the incidental : but the tense of the subjunctive mood 
is only determined by the direction of the mind so as to agree 
with the ideas which it has in view. 



348 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

The best rule to discover what is the tense of the subjunc- 
tive which ought to be used, is to make the incidental proposi- 
tion the principal with the indicative mood, then the tense of 
the subjunctive ought to correspond with that of the indicative 
in the inverted sentence. 



OF THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 

1310. A verb in the infinitive is used either as a subject or 
a regimen. 

1311. When used as a subject, the verb in the infinitive 
governs the singular number. When used as a regimen, it 
must not only relate to a word used in the same sentence, but 
it must be without any ambiguity ; so that the following sen- 
tences are incorrect : 

Life is too short for one to kill him- La vie est trop courte pour se tuer. 

self. 

It is to enable us to give, that the C'est pour donner que le Seigneur 

Almighty gives to us. nous donne. 

Because, in the first, the infinitive se tuer has no antecedent, 
no word to which it relates in the same sentence ; and in the 
second, donner creates an ambiguity ; it seems to relate just as 
much to the Almighty as to ourselves. In order to rectify the 
construction, we should say : 

La vie est trop courte pour qu>on se tue, 

C'est pour que nous donnions, que Dieu nous donne, 

and the ambiguity disappears. 

1312. But when the use of the infinitive mood does not cre- 
ate an ambiguity, it should be preferred to the subjunctive, and 
even to the indicative, which renders the style sometimes ob- 
scure and languid ; thus, in the following sentences, 

It is better for a man to be unfortu- II vaut mieux etre malheureux que 
nate than guilty, coupable, 

is better than, 

II vaut mieux qu'on soit malheureux que coupable ; 



VERB. 349 

My brother is sure to succeed, Mon frere est sur de reussir, 

is better than, 

Mon frere est sur qu'ilriussira. 

1313. A verb in the infinitive may be the regimen of anoth- 
er verb with or without the help of a preposition. (See what 
we have said about this case, page 289.) 

1314. Our language admits of two infinitives, one after the 
other ; then the last is the object of the first ; as, 

I will make him know it. Je veux le \mfaire savoir. 

I dare not permit them to write. Je n'ose leur permettre d'icrire. 

1315. But three or more infinitives used in this way would 
make the style confused, heavy, and disagreeable to the ear ; 
our good writers have proscribed such a practice ; therefore, 
we must not say : 

I think I shall be able to go and see Je crois pouvoir aller voir vos pa- 

your parents. rents. 

Do not think that you can exercise N'allez pas croire pouvoir j 'aire jouer 

all the powers of eloquence. tous les ressorts de l'eloquence. 

Such sentences must be constructed differently, in order to be 
correct ; as, 

Je crois que je pourrai aller voir vos parents. 

N'allez pas croire que vous sachiez faire jouer touts les ressorts de l'elo- 
quence. 



OF THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 

1316. The present participle is always terminated in ant ; 
as, etant, being ; aimant, loving ; parlant, speaking. 

This word, which applies equally to the three persons, is in- 
variable ; that is to say, takes no number or gender, whatever 
may be the noun to which it relates ; thus, we write, 

A man reading. Un homme lisant. 

Men reading. Des hommes lisant. 

A woman reading. Une femme lisant. 

Women reading. Des femmes lisant. 

1317. The present participle ought not to be mistaken for 

30 



350 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

the adjective, which differs from it only by its signification, 
the two words being alike in their construction. 

1318. The present participle expresses an action, or a tem- 
porary situation ; it has generally an object direct or indirect, 
expressed or understood. When the object is not expressed, 
in order to ascertain whether the word is a participle, we must 
put an object after it, and see if the sentence will be correct 
with it ; if so, it is a participle ; if not, it is an adjective. There 
is another way of ascertaining the nature of the present par- 
ticiple : if a doubt arise about the nature of the word, we must 
try to translate it by qui, with another tense of the verb, or 
place before this last tense one of the conjunctions lorsque, 
quand, when, jparceque, because, puisque, since, &c, and if 
the transformation produces a sentence which agrees with the 
mind and the genius of the language, then the doubtful word is 
a present participle ; if not, it is an adjective. Thus in the 
following phrase : 

He is a man of good nature, obli- C'est un homme d'un bon caractere, 
ging his friends when he can do obligeant ses amis quand il le peut. 
it. 

Obligeant here is evidently a present participle, because it 
expresses a temporary action, has a direct object, his friends, 
and could be replaced by qui oblige ses amis, &c, who obliges 
his friends, &c. 

These men, foreseeing danger, put Ces hommes, pHvoyant le danger, 
themselves on their guard. se mirent sur leurs gardes. 

Prevoyant is a present participle, for the reasons above 

stated. 

Those persons loving everybody, Les personnes aimant toutlemonde, 
generally love nobody. n'aiment generalement personne. 

The above remark applies to aimant. 

1319. The adjective, derived from the present participle, 
called by the grammarians verbal adjective, expresses the sit- 
uation, the permanent state of the noun to which it relates ; it 
may be constructed with any tense of the verb to be, but cannot 
be used with qui and the verb from which it is derived ; it has 
no object, direct or indirect, as in the following phrases : 
They are obliging persons. Ce sont des personnes obligeantes. 



VERB. 351 

Obligeantes does not express an action, but a natural and 
permanent disposition of the heart, which disposes those per- 
sons to oblige others at all times. We could not say here, qui 
obligent, because there is no regimen to be found ; but we 
could say, qui sont obligeantes, so as to designate a quality, and 
not an action ; therefore this word is an adjective, and must 
agree in number and gender with the noun which it qualifies. 

Persons who are inclined to love Les personnes aimantes ont plus de 

have much more satisfaction than jouissances que les autres. 
others. 

These provident persons have per- Ces personnes prevoyantes ont ap- 

ceived the danger. percu le danger. 

Aimantes and prevoyantes are adjectives for the same reason 
as obligeantes, in the first example. 

Although the above remarks ought to be sufficient to enable 
a native to ascertain, in all cases, when a word is a participle 
or a verbal adjective, we will now, for the sake of foreigners, 
add some few illustrations, so as to banish all possible doubt 
on the subject. 

Observations. 

1320. The present participle ought to express an action or 
a temporary situation reacting on somebody or some thing ; 
thus, in the following sentences : 

Carthage, resisting the whole forces Carthage resistant a toutes les forces 

of the Romans, was taken by sur- des Romains, fut surprise plutot 

prise rather than defeated. que vaincue. 

Here are some unfortunate people Voici des infortunes, palpitant en- 
still living under the ruins. core sous les mines. 

Their ambition increasing with their Leur ambition croissant avec leurs 

riches, from merchants they be- richesses, de marchands ils devin- 

came conquerors. rent conquerants. 

These ideas, running incessantly in Ces idees roulant a tout moment 
this wild soul, inspired it with a dans cette ame farouche, lui in- 
secret and silent rage. spiraient une rage muette et ca- 

chee. 

Resistant is put for when it resisted ; palpitant, for qui pal- 
pitent ; croissant, for as it increased ; roulant, for by running ; 
and, consequently, each one of these words is a present par- 
ticiple, which must remain invariable ; there is no possible 
doubt about it. 



352 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



Les rues sont remplies de ces en- 
fants inUressants, tremblants de 
froid, mourants de faim, et sans 
cesse pleurants. 

Les rues etaient remplies d'enfants, 
interessant tout le monde en leur 
favour, tremblant de peur a la vue 
de leurs maitres cruels, et pleu- 
rant amerement la perte de leur 
liberte. 



1321. But in the following : 

The streets are filled with these in- 
teresting children, shivering with 
cold, dying with hunger, and al- 
ways crying. 

The streets were filled with children, 
interesting everybody in their fa- 
vor, trembling with fear at the 
sight of their cruel masters, and 
crying bitterly for the loss of their 
liberty. 

The mind might hesitate at the proper qualification of the 
words interessant, tremblant, and pleurant, which are adjec- 
tives in the first sentence, and participles in the second ; 
but, if we apply the rule already laid down, we find no 
difficulty in accounting for the difference. The words inte- 
ressants, tremblants, mourants, and pleurants do not express 
a temporary action, but the state, the manner of being of the 
children, and could be changed into adjectives which present 
no doubt about their real character ; as, tremblants de froid, 
into transis, frozen ; mourants de faim into affames, starving ; 
pleurants, into eplores, in despair. Whereas, in the second 
sentence, interessant is followed by a direct object, tout le 
monde, and could be translated by qui interessaient ; tremblant 
de peur has an indirect object, and is a temporary feeling 
caused by the sight of the cruel masters, which might vanish 
with the cause which produces it ; pleurant has a direct object 
and could be expressed by qui pleuraient. These words, 
then, have all the properties of the present participle, and 
ought to be written accordingly. 

In the following sentences, we shall make use of 



The Present Participle. 
These men, whom you suppose to 
be so wild, live as we do. 

Ces hommes que vouscroyez si sau- 
vages sont des hommes vivant 
comme nous (qui vivent comme 
nous). 

This property, belonging to the her- 
itage, has to be sold. 

Ces biens, dependant de la succes- 
sion, doivent etre vend us (that is 
to say, because they belong). 



The Verbal Adjective. 

These small insects, which are im- 
perceptible to the sight, are be- 
ings having life as we have. 

Ces petits insects imperceptibles a 
la vue, sont des etres vivants 
comme nous (enjoying existence, 
life). 

They have sold all the property be- 
longing to the inheritance. 

On a vendu touts les biens depen- 
dants de la succession (which were 
belonging). 



VERB 



353 



1322. According to the rule already established, if the 
word, terminating in ant, may admit of the verb to be, being 
placed before it, it is then an adjective, and if not, a participle. 

1323. There are some of the present participles which are 
never used as adjectives ; as, 



Ayant, 


having. 


Babillant, 


tattling. 


Badinant, 


trifling. 


Etant, 


being. 


Folatrant, 


dallying 



Gambadant, 
Gesticulant, 
Sanglotant, 
Soupirant, 



gamboling, 
gesticulating, 
sobbing, 
sighing, &c. 



1324. Others have for corresponding adjectives words 
sounding alike, but whose orthography is different ; as, 



Participles. 




Adjectives. 


Extravagating, 


extravaguant, 


extravagant, 


extravagant. 


Intriguing, 


intriguant, 


intrigant, 


intriguer. 


Fabricating, 


fabriquant, 


fabricant, 


manufacturer. 


Being vacant, 


vaquant, 


vacant, 


vacant. 


Adhering, 


adherant, 


adherent, 


adherent. 


Abounding, 


affluant. 


affluent, 


running into. 


Coinciding, 


coincidant, 


coincident, 


coincident. 


Differing, 


differant, 


different, 


different. 


Compensating, 


equivalant, 


equivalent, 


equivalent. 


Excelling, 


excellant, 


excellent, 


excellent, 


Neglecting, 


negligeant, 


negligent, 


neglectful. 


Preceding, 


precedant, 


precedent, 


precedent. 


Presiding, 


presidant, 


president, 


president. 


Residing, 


residant, 


resident, 


residing. 



1325. From what we have said already, it is easily perceived, 
that the best guide to ascertain whether a word, terminating 
in ant, is a participle present or an adjective, is to analyze the 
sentence, and see what is the real meaning of the word, and 
act according to the result of the examination ; but there are 
some general indications which may serve as a guide ; as, 

1326. 1st. The word ending in ant is always a participle 
when it has a direct object, or when it is preceded by the 
negation ne ; as, 

A daughter caressing her mother. Une fille caressant sa mere. 

Children tormenting themselves. Des enfants se tourmentant. 

As you do not work, you ought to Ne travaillant pas vous devez etre 

be poor. pauvre. 

1327. 2d. It is still a participle when, expressing an idea 
of cause, or motive, it may receive another form and be pre- 
ceded by one of the conjunctions because, as, since ; as, 

30* 



354 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

As her hair was floating on her Ses cheveux flottant sur ses epaules, 
shoulders, it attracted the notice attiraient tous les regards, 
of all. 

It attracted notice because it was floating, the action of the 
hair was the cause of the attraction. 

Whereas we should say with the adjective : 

These children had magnificent hair Ces enfants avaient de magnifiques 
floating upon their shoulders. cheveux jiottants sur leurs e- 

paules. 

Here the hair is naturally floating and hanging on their 
shoulders ; there is no action expressed, but a state or a con- 
dition, and no effect produced by it. 

1328. 3d. When we wish to express an action with an 
idea of special time, or sameness of time : 

See these children anxious to obey, Voyez ces enfants obtissant a 1'envi, 
flying to gratify the wishes of courant au devant des desirs de 
their mother. leur mere. 

I saw them running before us. Je les voyais courant devant nous 

(when they were running). 

1329. 4th. When the word ending in ant admits of the 
preposition in, en, being placed before it, it can be but a 
present participle ; as, 

They have hurt themselves in play- lis se sont blesses en jouant. 

ing. 

Slander increases by the silence of La calomnie va toujours croissant 

the slandered. par le silence du calomnie. 

In the last sentence, en, in, could be prefixed to the word 
croissant, thus it is a participle. 



OP THE PAST PARTICIPLE. 

1330. The Past Participle used without an auxiliary verb 
agrees, like the adjective, in number and gender, with its ante- 
cedent. 

Surrounded on all sides, they Entouris de toutes parts, ils se 
thought themselves lost and forced crurent perdus et forces de se 
to surrender. rendre. 

1331. The past participle, accompanied by the auxiliary 
verb to 6e, always agrees with the nominative of the verb ; as, 



VERB. 355 

The Greeks were persuaded that Les^Grecs etaient persuadis que 
the soul is immortal. l'ame est immortelle. 

1332. Sometimes the nominative, instead of preceding the 
past participle, follows it ; but this arrangement of words does 
not interfere with the agreement of the participle ; as, 

When he saw the urn, in which Quand il vit l'urne ou etaient dipo- 
were deposited the ashes of Hip- sies les cendres d'Hippias, il versa 
pias, he shed a flood of tears. un torrent de larmes. 

1333. The past participle, conjugated with to have, agrees 
with the direct object of the verb, whenever the direct object 
is placed before it, and remains invariable when it is placed 
after, or when the verb has no direct object. Thus we should 
write, making the past participle agree, the following sentences : 

Here is the letter which I have Voici la lettre que j'ai regue, 

received, 

Here are the letters which I have Voici les lettres que j'ai regues, 

received, 

Where is thy book ? I have lost it, Ou est ton livre ? Je l'ai perdu, 

Where is thy pen ? I have lost it, Ou est ta plume* Je l'ai perdue, 

Where are thy books ? I have lost Ou sont tes livres ? Je les ai perdus, 

them, 

They have congratulated me, lis w'ont felicitd, 

He has congratulated us, II nous a filiates, 

My son, I have rewarded thee, Mon Jils, je Z'ai recompense, 

My sons, I have rewarded you, Mes Jils, je vous ai recompenses, 

What sorrow I have experienced ! Quelle peine j'ai eprouvee ! 

What trouble they have caused me ! Que de disagrements ils m'ont 

causes ! 

How many books have you read ? Combien de livres avez-vous lus ? 

because the past participles regue, regues, perdu, perdue, per- 
dus, felicite, felicites, &c, are preceded by their direct ob- 
jects que, le, la, les, me, nous, te, vous, se, or by a noun 
preceded by quel, que de, combien de. 

1334. But we write, without making the participle agree, 
the following sentences : 

We have received your letter, Nous avons regu votre lettre, 

They have lost their books, Ils ont perdu leurs livres, 

I have rewarded my sons, J'ai recompense mes jils, 

because the direct objects, lettre, livres, jils, are placed after 
the verb, and after their participles regu, perdu, recompense. 

1335. We will give also, without any alteration in the 
participle, the following examples : 



356 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

They have answered our expecta- lis ont Hpondu a notre attente, 

tions, 
We have sung, Nous avons chant6, 

This army has perished, Cette armee a peri, 

because the verb repondre has no direct object and chante and 
peri have no object at all. 

We conclude, then, from what precedes, and from the ex- 
amples given, that, 

1336. 1st. The nominative has no influence over the past 
participle conjugated with to have. 

1337. 2d. The neuter verbs conjugated with to have, 
never change their past participle, because they never have a 
direct object. 

Thus, in these sentences, 

The five hours during which I have Les cinq heures que j'ai dormi, 

been sleeping, 
The ten years during which I have Les dix ans que j'ai v6cu, 

lived, 

the past participles of the verbs dormir and vivre do not 
change, because the relative que, which precedes them, al- 
though apparently their direct object, is but an indirect object 
standing for pendant lesquelles, during which ; those sentences 
are then elliptical, and used for 

Les cinq heures pendant lesquelles j'ai dormi. 
Les dix ans pendant lesquels j'ai vecu. 

1338. In reflective verbs, although conjugated with the verb 
to be, instead of to have, the past participle follows exactly 
the same rule as the participle conjugated with to have ; that is 
to say, it agrees with its direct object when preceded by it, 
and remains invariable when the direct object follows it, or 
when there is no direct object at all. 

Thus, we write, making the participle agree, 

The letter which they have ad- La lettre qu'ils se sont adressee, 

dressed to each other, 

They have showed it to each other, lis se la sont montrde, 

They have blamed themselves, lis se sont blames, 

because the past participles, adresse, montre, blame, are pre- 
ceded by their direct objects, que, la, se. 



VERB. 357 

1339. But we write, without making the participles agree : 

They have addressed a letter to lis se sont adress6 une lettre, 

each other, 
Thev thought that I was joking, lis se sont imagine que je plaisan- 

tais, 

because the past participles, adresse, imagine, are followed 
by their direct objects, une lettre and que je plaisantais. 

1340. We still write, without making the participle agree, 

They have written to each other . lis se sont icrit. 

We have succeeded each other. Nous nous sommes succide. 

The past participles, ecrit, succede, having no direct ob- 
ject, in these sentences, which stand for 

lis ont ecrit a eux-memes. 

Nous avons succede a nous-memes. 

It results, from what precedes, that 

1341. 1st. The past participles of the verbs which can 
only be used reflectively, always agree, because these verbs 
have for their direct regimen the reflective pronoun, which 
always precedes them. Thus we write : 

We have abstained from all re- Nous nous sommes dbstenus de toutes 

flections, reflexions, 

My friends, you have repented of Mes amis, vous vous etes repentis de 

all your sins, toutes vos fautes, 

The troops have rendered them- Les troupes se sont emparees de la 

selves masters of the town, ville, 

making the past participles, abstenu, repenti, empare, agree 
with their direct objects, nous, vous, se, placed before them. 

1342. There is but one verb of this class, which is an 
exception to this rule, it is s'arroger, to arrogate, because it 
never has for its direct object the second pronoun ; thus we 
write, without agreement, 

They have arrogated rights to Us se sont arrogi des droits, 
themselves, 

because the direct object, des droits, is placed after the par- 
ticiple ; but we write, with agreement, 

The rights which they have arro- Les droits qu'ils se sont arroges, 
gated to themselves, 

because the direct object, droits, is placed before the parti- 
ciple. 



358 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

1343. 2d. The past participle of reflective verbs, originating 
from neuter verbs, remains invariable, because these verbs, 
as well as all neuter verbs, are deprived, by their nature, of a 
direct object. Thus we write without agreement, 

We have hurt ourselves. Nous nous sorames nui. 

They have pleased themselves. lis se sont plu. 

1344. The following verbs are the only ones which, with 
the reflective form, derive their origin from the neuter verbs ; 
as, 

Se plaire. To delight in. 

Se deplaire. To displease one's self. 

Se complaire. To be pleased with. 

Se rire. To laugh at. 

Se sourire. To smile at one's self. 

Se parler. To speak to one's self. 

Se succeder. To succeed. 

Se nuire. To hurt one's self. 

Se convenir. To agree with each other. 

Se ressembler. To resemble each other. 

Se suffire. To be sufficient to one's self. 

Consequently the past participle of these verbs remains inva- 
riable. 

1345. The above rules, four in number, are sufficient to re- 
solve all difficulties in the agreement of the past participle ; 
but as the application of these rules might present some diffi- 
culties, we will now give some illustrations in which a pupil 
may detect, at once, which word is the direct object, and not 
feel embarrassed about the agreement of the participle. These 
illustrations will complete the explanation of these rules. 



Remarks and Illustrations of the Rules in regard to the Past 

Participle. 

1346. Excepte, vu, attendu, y compris, suppose. 

We have said that the past participle, used without an auxil- 
iary, agrees as an adjective with its antecedent, or the noun 
which it qualifies ; but in the following sentences : 



VERB. 



359 



The inhabitants were put to the 
sword, except women and chil- 
dren, 

He sold his mansion, the farm in- 
cluded, 

This circumstance being supposed, 
what course will you take ? 

Seeing your levity, I cannot trust 
you, 

Considering his infirmity he was 
exempted from military service, 



Les habitans furent passes au fil 

de l'epee, excepte les femmes et 

les enfants, 
II vendit son chateau, y compris la 

ferme, 
Suppose cette circonstance, quel 

parti prendrez vous ? 
Vu votre legerete, je ne puis me 

fier a, vous, 
Attendu son infirmite, il fut ex- 

empte du service militaire, 



the words excepte, y compris, suppose, vu, attendu, are ellipti- 
cally used as prepositions, and consequently remain invariable ; 
excepte is put for hormis, except, with the exception of, a V ex- 
ception de ; y compris, for avec, with ; vu and attendu, for a 
cause de, on account of. 

When these words are not used as prepositions they follow 
the rules of the participles ; as, 



Exempted from the common law of 
nature, this woman lived one hun- 
dred and twenty years. 

We all went out, our daughters 
being excepted. 



Exceptee de la loi commune, cette 
femme vecut cent vingt ans. 

Nous sortimes, nos Jilles exceptees. 



The reason of the invariableness of these five words and 
others of a similar nature, is in the ellipsis of the verb to have, 
which takes place in some cases, as, for instance, when we say : 



They murdered the inhabitants ex- 
cept the children. 

After ten o'clock I shall not wait 
any longer for you. 

Paid one hundred dollars to Mr. 

Received two hundred dollars of 

Mr. S**. 
You will find here, included, a copy 

of what you want. 



On massacra les habitans (ayant) 
excepte les enfants. 

(Ayant) passe dix heures, je ne 
vous attendrai plus. 

(Ayant) paye cent gourdes a, M. 
S**. 

(Ayant) regu deux cents gourdes 
de M. S**. 

Vous trouvez ci-inclus, or ci-joint 
copie de ce que vous demandez, 
or vous trouverez ci-incluse, or 
ci-jointe la copie de ce qui vous 
demandez. 

it is seen that the compound participles ci-inclus, ci-joint re- 
main invariable before a noun taken indefinitely, and agree 
when the noun is definite. 
But we say also : 

Ci-joint la copie, ci-joint les lettres. 

without agreement ; in such cases, these expressions ought to 
be considered as adverbial. 



360 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Some verbs, according to their meaning, are active or neu- 
ter. 



1347. Past Participles of Verbs, which are Active or Neuter? 
according to their signification. 

When active, the past participle of these verbs agrees with 
their direct object ; when neuter, they remain invariable. We 
say equally well : 

This servant has served us faith- Ce domestique nous a servis fidele- 

fully. ment. 

This servant has been very useful Ce domestique nous a bien servi. 

to us. 

We say, servir quelqu'une, to serve somebody, and servir 
a quelqu'un, to be useful to somebody. The first expression 
means to be in the service of some one, to help him, to assist 
him, the other signifies, to be of some use, useful ; thus one 
is an active verb, and the other neuter, and hence the differ- 
ence in the orthography of their past participles in the two sen- 
tences above. 

The verbs, 

Aider to help, 

Applaudir to applaud, 

Commander to command, 

Fuir to run from, 

Insulter to insult, 

Manquer to want, to fail, to miss, 

and a few others, are equally active or neuter according to their 
meaning ; thus we write : 

ACTIVE. NEUTER. 

He has helped us in our wants. He ha3 helped us to come down. 

II nous a aides dans nos besoins. II nous a aide a descendre. 

He has applauded us when we He has approved of our having 

have spoken. acted thus. 

II nous a applaudis quand nous II nous a applaudi d'en avoir agi 

avons parle. ainsi. 

We have been commanded for We have been ordered to go out. 

twelve o'clock. 
On nous a commandos pour midi. On nous a commande de sortir. 

The enemy has fled from us. Time has fled from us. 

L'ennemi nous a fuis. Le temps nous a fui (before us). 

He has insulted us grossly. He has insulted us by his luxury. 

II nous a insulles grossierement. II nous a insulU par son luxe. 



VERB. 361 

He has aimed at us and has missed Time has failed to us. 

us. ' ' 

II nous a vises et nous a manques. Le temps nous a manque. 



1348. 0/ Pa$J Participles followed by an Adjective or an- 
other Past Participle. 

We say : 

They have believed that we were On nous a crus coupables par ce 
guilty, because they have seen qu'on nous a vus embarrasses. 
that we were confused. 

They have believed, whom 1 us ; they have seen, whom ? us. 
This pronoun, us, nous, is evidently here the direct object of 
the two verbs to believe and to see; therefore the past participles 
must agree with it ; the adjectives coupable and embarrasse have 
no influence over the participles. The same remark is appli- 
cable to the following sentences : 

They were happy to see us again lis furent heureux de nous revoir 

because they thought we were car ils nous avaient crus perdus. 

lost. 

By making our soul like to himself, En faisant l'ame a son image, Dieu 

God has made it capable to love /'a faite capable de l'aimer et de 

him and to know him. le connaitre. 

In the following sentence must the participle agree ? 

I sent my letter to the post-office, J'ai envoye ma lettre a la poste 
as soon as I had finished it. aussitot que je l'ai eu Jinie. 

Here fai eu Jini presents to the mind only a single verb, 
as favais Jini, I had done, and if we were to make the past 
participle eu agree with lettre, there would be in the same 
verb two agreements for a single direct object, and two effects 
for one cause. In phrases like this, the past participle is a 
mere sign of anteriority, and should remain invariable ; but we 
write : 

This letter, I had it written from Cette lettre, je Z'ai eue ecrite de la 
the hand of the King himself, main meme du Roi, 

because the participle eu is no longer a sign of anteriority, but 
expresses the idea of possession, and must agree with lettre, 
which is the thing possessed. 
31 



362 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

1 349. Past Participles followed by the nominative of the Verb. 

Nothing can replace the enjoyment Rien ne peut suppleer lajoi'e qu'ont 
destroyed by remorse. detruite les remords. 

The remorse has destroyed, what ? the enjoyment ; thus 
the relative que referring to joie, and preceding the past parti- 
ciple, the agreement must take place. 



1350. Past Participle followed by an Infinitive, which is itself 
preceded by a Preposition. 

Study the lesson which you have Etudiez la legon que vous avez ou- 

forgotten to learn. blie d'apprendre. 

Study the lesson which has been Etudiez la legon qu'on vous a don- 

given you to learn. nee a apprendrt. 

Jn the first example the participle does not agree because its 
direct object is the verb which follows it ; for it is not the les- 
son which may have been forgotten, since it has not been 
learned, but it is to learn it, which has been forgotten ; the 
meaning of the sentence is this : 

You have forgotten to learn your Vous avez oublie d'apprendre votre 
lesson; study it. legon ; etudiez la. 

In the other example, on the contrary, legon is the direct 
object of the past participle, represented by que; because 
there would be nothing to learn if the lesson had not been giv- 
en ; therefore the past participle must agree with it. There is 
always an easy method of ascertaining when the agreement 
should take place in such sentences ; if there is agreement, the 
word which is considered as the direct object may be placed 
between the participle and the preposition which precedes the 
infinitive. Thus we may say here : 

On a donni la legon a apprendre, 
but we cannot say : 

On a oublie' la legon d'apprendre, 

but 

On a oublie d'apprendre la legon ; 

the participle must agree in the first case, and not in the second. 

We should write also : 

How many difficulties he had to Combien de difficult^ il a eues a 
surmount, surmonter, 

because we may say : 



VERB. 363 

II a eu des difficultis a surmonter. 

Here are the enemies which the Voila les ennemis que la reine a 

Queen had to fight. eus a combattre. 

In order to judge of the miraculous Pourjuger de la propagation mi- 
extension of the Christian faith, raculeuse de la foi Chretienne, 
we must consider what obstacles il faut considerer les obstacles 
it had to surmount. qu'elle a eus a surmonter. 



1351. Past Participle followed by an Infinitive without a 
Preposition. 

When a past participle is followed by an infinitive without a 
preposition, it agrees if its direct object is the pronoun which 
precedes it, and does not agree, if that direct object is the in- 
finitive, which follows it : 

This lady has a fine voice, I have Cette femme a une belle voix, je 
heard her sing. /'ai entendue chanter. 

I have heard, whom 1 the lady ; 1 have heard her singing ; then 
la is the direct object of the participle, and this participle must 
agree with it, because the pronoun precedes. 

This song is very pretty, I have Cette romance est tres jolie, je l'ai 
heard it sung. entendu chanter, 

I have heard, whatl some one sing the song; therefore, the 
direct object of the participle is not song, but the infinitive 
chanter, to sing, and the participle should remain invariable. 

I let them go, Je les ai laisses partir ; 

I have let whom ? them go. Thus les is the direct object of 
the participle, and, being placed before, the agreement must 
take place ; but, in 

They have let the enemy overtake lis se sont laissi surprendre ipzr l'en- 
them, nemi, 

they have let, what ? the enemy overtake them. Then the in- 
finitive surprendre is the direct object of the participle, and 
them, expressed by se, the object of overtake. Therefore, 
there is no agreement ; the infinitive being placed after the par- 
ticiple. 

It is seen, that the past participle laisse, followed by an infin- 
itive, follows the same rule as any other participle in the same 
case, agreeing with its direct object if placed after it, and re- 
maining invariable if placed before it. 



364 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

1352. Sometimes the infinitive is understood after the parti- 
ciples of the verbs devoir, to owe, pouvoir, to be able, and 
vouloir, to be willing, as in the following sentences : 

1 rendered him all the services I Je lui ai rendu touts les services que 

could. j'ai pu (lui rendre). 

I rendered him all the services I Je lui ai rendu touts les services que 

ought. j'ai du (lui rendre). 

I rendered him all the services I Je lui ai rendu touts les services que 

wished. j'ai voulu (lui rendre). 

And in these cases the participle remains invariable, having, as 
a direct object, the infinitive, which is understood. 

But, if the infinitive is not understood after those past parti- 
ciples, they follow the general rule and agree with their direct 
object when placed before them ; as, 

He has paid me all the sums he H m'a paye toutes les sommes qu'W 

owed me. m'a dues. 

He sticks strongly to what he has H veut fortement les choses qu'il a une 

wished once. fois voulues. 

1353. There is a mechanical way of ascertaining whether 
the past participle, followed by an infinitive, must agree or not ; 
it consists in changing the infinitive into the present participle, 
and seeing if the sense produced by this transformation con- 
forms to the idea meant to be expressed. In this sentence, for 
instance : 

The woman whom I have heard La femme que j'ai entendue chanter, 
sing, 

we may say, 

La femme que j'ai entendue chantant ; 

because it is the woman who sang. But in the following : 

The song which I had heard sung, La romance que j'ai entendu chan- 
ter, 
we cannot say, 

La romance que j'ai entendu chantant ; 

because a song does not sing. 

Hence, there is agreement in the first case, and none in the 
other. We see also, then, that if the noun, which is consid- 
ered as the direct object of the past participle, may be the 
nominative of the infinitive following, the participle agrees with 



VERB. 365 

it, and if not, there is no agreement ; for the first sentence 
could be turned by 

La femme que j'ai entendue qui chantait ; 

in which qui, the nominative of the verb chanter, has for its 
antecedent, femme, the direct object of the past participle. 

The past participle may be preceded by two direct objects, 
in which case it always agrees ; because one belongs to the in- 
finitive, and the other to the participle, as in the following : 

Such is, my son, the cause of the Telle est, mon fils, la cause des 
tears which you have seen me larmes que tu m'as vue verser. 
shed. (It is a mother who speaks.) (C'est une mere qui parle.) 

in which larmes is the direct object of verser, and me, that of 
the participle vu. 

1354. The two following sentences come under the control 
of these rules : 

The persons, who were thought dan- Les personnes qu'on. a crues dan ge- 

gerously wounded, have received reusement blessees, n'ontregu que 

but slight bruises. de legeres contusions. 

The persons who, I have been as- Les personnes qu'on m'a assure 

sured, have been dangerously avoir 6te dangereusement bles- 

wounded, have received but slight sees, n'ont regu que de legeres 

bruises. contusions. 

In the first phrase, the past participle crues, which in fact re- 
lates to the noun personnes, may, by decomposing the sentence, 
be constructed with this word or a pronoun which represents 
it ; as, 

They have been thought wounded. \ °" ks *™ e , s bles£ * es ' . 
J t -klles ont ete crues blessees. 

Thus the relative que is both the object of the past parti- 
ciple and the nominative of the following verb, hence the agree- 
ment. 

Whereas, in the last phrase, the past participle does not 
modify the noun personnes ; les personnes assurees would have 
no meaning. We could not say : 

TOn les a assuries grievement bles- 
They have been assured dangerous-J sees. 

ly wounded. j Elles ont ete assurdes grievement 

(_ blessees. 

The relative que, which precedes assure, is the nomina- 
tive of the expression, avoir ete blessees, and forms, with that 
31* 



366 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

expression, the direct object of the past participle assure ; 
as, 

They have assured, what ? That On assure, quoi ? Qu'elles devaient 

they ought to be dangerously 6tre dangereusement blessees, or 
wounded, or 

That they had been dangerously Qu'elles avaientete dangereusement 

wounded. blessees. 

And as the sense does not allow the pronoun que to be the di- 
rect object of the participle, the agreement does not take place. 
The following illustrations, taken from our best writers, will 
confirm the preceding rule still more strongly : 

The words which they said had been Les paroles qu'on a dit avoir £tt pro- 
pronounced, noncees. 

It is a thing which they thought C'est une chose qu'on a pensi devoir 

would be convenient to me. me convenir. 

The individuals whom they thought Les personnes qu'on apensectre sus- 

to be suspicious. pectes. 

Above the desk, an unknown hand, Au-dessus du pupitre, une main 

which was said to be that of the etrangere, qu'on a dit ttre celle du 

lord of the village, has written chatelain du village, a ecrit ces 

these verses. vers. 

Louis XIV. had in his soul a part of Louis XIV. avait dans l'ame une 

the grandeur, which people had partie de la grandeur, qu'on a- 

thought, until then, existed only vait cru jusqu'alors n'exister qu'- 

around him. autour de lui. 



1355. Past Participle of the Verb Faire followed by an 
Infinitive. 

The past participle of the verb faire, when prefixed 
to an infinitive, loses its primitive origin and signification ; it 
forms, with the infinitive, a compound word, at least, in the 
mind of the writer ; they become inseparable, and the parti- 
ciple does not change, whatever may be its direct object and 
the place of that object in the sentence ; thus, in our mind, 
this phrase, 

They caused them to leave the On les a. fait sortir. 

place, 

signifies 

On a. fait sortir eux, 
and not 

On a. fait eux sortir ; 
or else, 

On a fait en sorte qu'ils sortissent. 



VERB. 367 

This phrase cannot be decomposed into 

On les a faits, ils sont sortis ; 

as we might say, 

On les a laisses, ils sont sortis, 

for 

On les a laisses sortir, 

It is evident, then, that the verb faire has changed its 
nature and signification, and the general rule is not applicable 
to it. 



1356. Past Participle preceded and followed by Que. 

The past participle, preceded and followed by que, is invari- 
able ; as, 

The answer which I foresaw would La reponse ^wej'avais privu qu'on 

be made to you. vous ferait. 

The troubles which I saw you to be Les embarras que j'ai vu que vous 

in. aviez. 

because this participle has always for its direct object the last 
clause of the sentence ; for instance, in this case : 

I had foreseen, what ? That they would make you an answer. 
I had seen, what ? That you were in trouble. 

And as these direct objects are placed after the verb, there is 
no agreement. 



1357. Past Participle preceded by Lui or Leur, employed 
instead of Le, La, Les. 

It is a business which I have left C'est une affaire que je leur ai laissd 
them the trouble to settle togeth- demeler ensemble, 
er. 

The grammatical construction would admit of the direct pro- 
noun les, instead of the indirect leur, but usage has made this 
last prevail ; and by decomposing the sentence, we find its 
construction to be : 

C'est une affaire que j'ai laisse* ct, eux le soin de demeler ensemble. 



368 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

The direct object being, then, le soin de demeler, &c., placed 
after the participle, there is no agreement. 

These pronouns lui and leur, for le, la, or les, ought always 
to be preferred when they are preceded by a direct object, 
whether a noun or a pronoun, as in the following : 

I have see a him do it. Je le lui ai vu faire. 

This is a thing which I heard them C'est une chose que je leur ai enten- 

say. du dire. 

Your sister drank the prescription ; Votre soeur a bu la potion ; je la lui 

I have seen her drink it. ai vu boire. 

But, if the phrase could be constructed otherwise, as, 

Je /'ai vu le faire, 
Je /'ai vue la boire, 

then the verb voir has a direct object as well as boire, and the 
participle agrees ; but this construction is not always possible. 
Analogy would require that the same rule should be applied 
to the pronouns of the first and second persons singular or plu- 
ral ; but usage still interferes here, and most of our best writers 
make the participle agree with them ; as, 

This is a question, gentlemen, which C'est une question, messieurs, qu'on 

has been left for you to decide. vous a laiss^s demeler. 

Such is, my son, the cause of the "Voila, mon fils, la cause des pleurs 

tears which you have seen me que vous m' ! B.vez vue verser (speak- 

shed. ing of a mother). 



1358. Past Participle preceded by Le, representing a member 
of a sentence. 

The past participle is always invariable when preceded by V 
representing a part of a sentence ; because V is there instead 
of cela, which, being always singular and masculine, cannot 
cause the participle, of which it is the direct regimen, to take 
any number or gender. We shall then write : 

This letter is more interesting than Cette lettre est plus interessante que 

I had supposed (it would be). je ne /'avais cru. 

The affair was less serious than I L'affaire est moins serieuse que je 

expected (it to be). ne /'avais cru. 

This perfidy has taken place, as I Cette perfidie a eu lieu comme je 

had supposed (it would be). /'avals suppose". 

Famine happened, as Joseph had La famine arriva comme Joseph 

foretold (it would come). /'avait prddit. 



VERB. 369 

These sentences stand instead of the following : 

Cette lettre est plus interessante que je n'avais cru qu'elle etait interes- 

sante. f ^ 

L'affaire fut moins serieuse que je n'avais pense qu'elle serait serieuse. 
Cette perfidie a eu lieu comme j'avais suppose qu'elle aurait lieu. 
La famine arriva ainsi que Joseph avait predit qu'elle arriverait. 



1359. Past Participle preceded by the Pronoun En. 

Speaking of flowers, we say, 
I have gathered them, Je les ai cueillies, 

if we wish to express that we gathered them all ; and we say, 
I have gathered some, J'en ai cueilli, 

if we speak only of a part of them. In the first instance, the 
pronoun les is the direct object of the verb, and the participle, 
being preceded by it, must agree with it ; but in the second 
sentence en is used elliptically y and the natural construction 
would be, 

J'ai cueilli une certaine quantite de cela ; 

then de cela (speaking of flowers) is expressed by en placed 
before the verb, and une certaine quantity which is sup- 
pressed, being the direct object, and placed after the parti- 
ciple, cannot have any influence upon it ; hence no agreement. 
There is no discrepancy about this rule ; it is admitted by all. 
Thus we write : 

He has troops, and has asked for II a des troupes, et il en a demandd 

some more from the other nations aux autres peuples de la Grece. 

of Greece. 

Alas ! I was blind in my vows, for Helas ! J'etais aveugle en mes voeux 

I made some against "thee, when aujourd'hui, 

I made some for him. J'en ai fait contre toi, quand j'en 

Kifait pour lui. 

1360. But we say, with agreement, 

We have informed them of it, Nous les en avons inf omits, 

He has blamed us for it, II nous en a blame's, 

The opinion which I had conceived h'opinion que j'en avais congue, 

of it, 

She has boasted of it publicly Elle s'en est vantie assez publique- 

enough, ment, 

Thank Heaven, who has revenged Rendez graces au ciel, qui nous en 

us, a venges, 



370 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

because the participles informes, blames, congue, vantee, ven- 
ges, are preceded by their direct objects, les, nous, que, se, 
nous, and then follow the general verb. 

1361. But must we write, with agreement, 

How many flowers he has gathered ! Combien de fleurs il a cueillies ! 

and other phrases constructed like it ? The grammarians are 
divided on this question, but generally the agreement is adopted, 
and we think it is very proper, because if we place the ques- 
tion, He has gathered what 9 the answer is, some flowers ; 
flowers is, then, the direct object of the participle, and it must 
agree with it ; then in this sentence, speaking of flowers, 

How many I have gathered of them, Combien yen ai cueillies, 

combien and en compose, together, the direct object of the 
verb, the mind refers no longer to a word understood, the 
phrase is full, complete ; the attention of the hearer is fixed 
on the collective noun, combien, and en, its determinative, and 
the agreement necessarily follows, because that direct object, 
thus composed, precedes the participles. We write, ac- 
cording to the same principle : 

He has gained as many battles as Autant de batailles il a Ivories, au- 

he has fought. tant il en a gagndes. 

Speaking of faults, how many I Des fautes, combien, or que yen ai 

have committed ! commises ! 

Such is the opinion of our best writers and grammarians ; 
as, Voltaire, La Fontaine, Rousseau, Racine, BufTon, Mas- 
sillon, Damergue, Lemare, Bescher, Ranier, Courson, &c. 

How many men have we not seen, Combien en a-t-on vus, jusqu'aux 

even at the foot of the altar, pre- pieds des autels, 

sent a heart full of criminal dis- Porter un cceur petri de penchants 

positions ! criminels ! 

How many among the most elegant Combien en ai-je vus, je dis des plus 

I have seen blowing their fingers , huppes, 

from cold in the yard of my house. A souffler dans leurs doigts, dans 

ma cour, occupes ! 

1362. But then, wherefore write the following in the inter- 
rogative form, the past participle remaining in the singular 
masculine ? 

Of flowers, how many have you Des fleurs, combien en avez-vous 

gathered ? cueilli J 

Of pages, how many have you Des pages, combien en avez-vous 

xvritten ? icrit ? 



VERB. 371 

It is, because there is here an uncertainty as to the number of 
flowers gathered, or the number of pages written, and then 
the pronoun en, having a vague meaning, does not recall 
sufficiently to the mind the noun which it represents ; an excla- 
mation, or affirmation, compels the agreement, but an interro- 
gation, or a doubt, seems to forbid it, at least in cases similar 
to these ; thus, speaking of pages, we say, without agreement : 

I do not know, I do not see, tell me Je ne sais pas, je ne vois pas, dites 
how many you have written of moi combien vous en avez ccrit. 
them. 

The word combien is, besides, the complement of the first 
verb, which establishes a great difference between this case 
and those where the agreement takes place. 

1363. When the word of quantity is not used as a noun, 
and is not followed by the pronoun en as a determinative, the 
participle remains invariable ; as, 

Speaking of a book : 
I have read much of it. Ten ai beaucoup lu. 

Speaking of the world : 
He has seen so much of it. II en a tant vu. 

Speaking of work : 
"We have done enough of it. Nous en avons assez fait. 

Speaking of wine : 
He has taken too much of it. II en a trop pris. 

Speaking of men : 

I have seen many of them* who were J'en ai beaucoup vu qui philoso- 
wiser philosophers than I am. phaient bien plus sagement que 

moi. 

The words beaucoup, taut, assez, trop, &c, in these sen- 
tences, are but adverbs, which could be placed after the par- 
ticiples ; as, 

J'en ai lu beaucoup. 

II en a vu tant. 

Nous en avons fait assez, &c. 

1364. We should write also, without agreement, the follow- 
ing sentence, although the adverb precedes the pronoun en, 



372 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

He mistrusts his friends ; he had II se merle des amis, tant Hen am 
so many who were untrue, d'infideles, 

because tant is not used here as a noun. 
In the next sentence, 

He has written more books than II a ecrit plus de livres que vous 
you have read, n'en avez lu, 

the complement, which is understood, is not easy to find ; the 
sentence could be analyzed as follows : 

He has written many works, and II a ecrit beaucoup d'ouvrages, et 
you have not read as many, vous en avez lu moins, 

then the conjunction que is replaced by et, the negation ne has 
disappeared, and the complement, which was understood, is 
moins, less. 

We could analyze it also as follows : 

He has written works in great II a ecrit des ouvrages en grande 
quantity, and you have read others quantite, et vous avez lu d'autres 
in less quantity. ouvrages en moindre quantite. 

1365. But whatever be the construction put upon it, the 
pronoun en not being preceded in the same proposition by a 
word of quantity used as a noun, the agreement cannot take 
place. 

1366. But in this sentence, 

This man has obliged me ; the Cet homme m'a oblige ; les services 

services which I received from que yen ai re£us m'on rempli de 

him have impressed me with la plus vive reconnaissance, 
deep gratitude, 

en is the indirect object of the participle and services its direct 
object, which, being placed before it, commands the agreement. 

1367. We generally write in the singular masculine : 

Of this liquor, how much I have De cette liqueur, combien j'en ai hi. 

drunk. 

Of glory, the less he desired it, the De la gloire, moins il en a dtsiri 

more he obtained of it. plus il en a eu. 

It is, probably, because, the mind not thinking of the nu- 
merical words, combien, plus, moins, the expression becomes 
merely vague, and the pronoun en being indeterminate, the 
participle which refers to it has to remain invariable. 

1368. It results from what has been already said, that when- 
ever the pronoun en precedes an expression of quantity, repre- 



VERB. 373 

senting a plural noun, it expresses a fraction of a whole which 
has distinct parts, and the agreement takes place ; whereas, if the 
noun, represented by the word of quantity, is in the singular, 
the pronoun expresses but a part of a single whole, and hence 
no agreement ; which is generally admitted. 

1369. Mr. Bescher extends this observation to the noun 
itself, and writes the following phrase without agreement : 

How much science he has acquired. Que de science il s'est acquis. 

See how much grass he has tram- Voyez que d'herbe il zfouM. 

pled down. 

As much wisdom as he has showed. Autant de sagesse il a moniri. 

The more diffidence he had, the less Plus de defiance il a eu, moins de 

confidence he inspired in others. confiance il s'est attirt. 

1370. But there are cases when the agreement ought to 
take place with the noun, and others when it should be with 
the word of quantity which precedes it ; thus we should say 
with Racine : 

Was ever so much virtue crowned ? 
Jamais tant de vertu fut-elle couronnie ? 

With Voltaire : 

Such temerity should be soon pun- Tant de temiriti serait bientot sw- 
ished, nie. 

And with La Chaussee : 

So much delicacy is false or dan- Tant de delicatesse est fausse ou 
gerous. dangereuse. 

1371. But we should say also with Charles Nodier : 

Never has so much virtue been Jamais tant de vertu n'a ete reuni a 

found united to such intelligence, tant d'intelligence, 
More severity would be dangerous, Plus de severite serait dangereux, 

because the mind is more particularly struck with the idea of 
the adverbs tant and plus. 

1372. The agreement, it is seen, depends on the operation 
of the mind, more than upon the words themselves, and in 
such cases we must never consult them alone. 

It is on the same principle that Boinvillers has written : 

What magnificence has our maker Que de magnificence le createur a 

displayed in this vast universe ! deployie dans ce vaste univers ! 

The more property we have got Autant de fortune nous avons amas- 

together, the more solicitude we see, autant de sollicitude nous avons 

have to keep it. eue pour la conserver. 

32 



374 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

So we may lay down the following rule : 

The past participle preceded by the pronoun en (partitive) 
only varies when this pronoun completes the meaning of an 
expression of quantity, and represents a plural noun, and when 
it is not found in a sentence expressing interrogation or doubt. 



1373. Past Participle used with Impersonal Verbs. 

The great heat we had, has been very injurious. 
Les grandes chaleurs qu'il a fait ont beaucoup nui. 
Les " " qu'il yaeu " " 

When we say of a man : 

He has made a journey, he found II a fait un voyage, il y a eu du 
pleasure in it, plaisir, 

the pronoun il relates to a noun which is definite ; but when 
I say : 

The weather has been cold, II a fait froid, 

We had much heat, II y a eu de grandes chaleurs, 

It rains, it snows, II pleut, il neige, 

this same pronoun il is indefinite, it relates to nobody, to no 
noun expressed before, and for that reason the verb is called 
impersonal. Then no word can be called the direct object of 
a verb, the action of which is performed by nobody ; and we 
write, without agreement, 

The bad weather we had, Les mauvais temps qu'il y a ew, 

The great heat we had, Les grandes chaleurs qu'il a /mY, 

because there is no question here of bad weather had, or great 
heat made by anybody. The verbs avoir, to have, faire, to 
make, have lost their former and natural signification and desig- 
nate only the existence of a fact, and the relative que is not the 
object of any verb. These expressions are purely idiomatical, 
and do not comport with any satisfactory analysis. 



VERB. 375 



1374. Past Participle preceded by several Nouns and agreeing 
only with one. 

I have seen disappear the crowd of J'ai vu disparaitre la. foule de flat- 
flatterers which my fortune had teurs que la fortune avait formie 
gathered around me. autour de moi. 

I have seen disappear this crowd of J'ai vu disparaitre cette foule de 

flatterers which my fortune had fiatteurs que ma fortune avait at- 

attracted around me. tires autour de moi. 

In the first example we can, before the enunciation of the 
participle formie, make the relative pronoun que relate to the 
noun foule, rather than to the noun fiatteurs, and by examining 
the sense of the sentence, we discover that the mind alludes 
more to the first than to the last ; it is the crowd which is 
formed ; therefore we make the relative que agree with the 
crowd, foule, and the participle is written in the feminine. 

In the second example, on the contrary, it is to the flatter- 
ers that the mind alludes in preference to the crowd, and con- 
sequently the participle ought to agree with it and be written 
in the masculine plural. 

1375. When a participle is preceded by several nouns with 
which it could possibly agree, we must find out which is that, 
whose relation with it seems the most intimate ; and this will 
fix the agreement ; we have already made this remark, speak- 
ing of the adjective and the verb. 

We give now a set of examples to illustrate this rule ; as, 

What an amount of stones they Quelle quantite de pierres on a ti- 

have already hauled out of the rees de cette carriere. 
quarry. 

I had a serious disease, caused by J'eus une maladie serieuse causee 

drinking too large a quantity of par la trop grande quantite de 

liquor. liqueurs que j'avais hue. 

How could I, Madam, stop this Comment pourrais-je, Madame, ar- 

flood of tears, which time has reter ce torrent de larmes que le 

not dried, and which so many temps n'a pas epuist, que tant de 

just causes for joy have not ex- justes joies n'ont pas tari ? 
hausted ? 

1376. We should, then, write in the plural : 

This flood of tears which he has Ce torrent de larmes qu'il a essuyees. 
dried up. 



(We do not say essuyer un torrent.) 



376 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

What does the sinner see in the long Que voit le pecheur dans cette 
succession of days, which he has longue suite de jours qu'il a ^as- 
passed on earth. s6s sur la terre. 

(We say passer des jours ;) and in the singular : 

What a deluge of evils has he not Quel deluge de maux n'avait-il pas 

spread over the earth ! repandus sur la terre ! 

He had disinherited his daughter as C'est s&fille, aussi bien que ses fils, 

well as his sons, qu'il avait dtsMritee, 

It is a man or a woman whom they C'est un homme on une femme 

have murdered, qu'on a assassinee, 

(making the participle agree with the last noun, because the 
mind is no more interested in one than in the other.) 

It is one half of the camp which C'est la moitie du camp qu'on a 

they have burned. brulce. 

Turenne is one of the best generals Turenne est un des meilleurs g6- 
that France has produced. neraux que la France ait pro- 

duits. 
It is more the general than the offi- C'est plus le giniral que les officiers 
cers whom they have blamed. que l'on a blamd. (The general 

has been blamed.) 



1377. Past Participle with the Adverb Le peu. 

Le peu, the little, or the few, or the want of, has two differ- 
ent significations ; it means a small quantity, or the want of 
something. 

When it means a small quantity, the agreement is determined 
by the noun which follows it. 

When it means the want of any thing, it is with this word, 
and not with the noun following, that the participle agrees ; as, 

The little affection which you have Le peu ^affection que vous lui avez 
shown him has given him cour- montrde lui a donne du courage ; 
age, 

(there is some affection shown.) 

The want of affection which you Le peu d'affection que vous lui avez 
have shown him has discouraged montri l'a decouragd, 
him, 

(there is no affection shown.) 

In the first example, le peu, signifies a small quantity, for 
there has been some affection shown ; thus que relates to affec- 
tion, which, being feminine, governs the participle in the same 
number. 






VERB. 377 

In the second example, on the contrary, le peu signifies the 
want ; there has been no affection shown, for without the want 
of affection he would not have been discouraged ; then que re- 
lates to the want, le pen, which, being singular and masculine, 
governs the participle in the same number and gender. 

1378. The participle, preceded by le peu, agrees, when the 
sense of the sentence allows the suppression of these two 
words, and remains invariable when that suppression cannot 
take place. 

In the first sentence, if we suppress le peu, we have : 

L'affection que vous lui avez montree lui a donne du courage, 

which is correct. 

In the second, we have : 

L'affection que vous lui avez montree l'a decourage, 

which is nonsense. 

Hence agreement in the first case, and none in the other. 

The want of horses for the service Lepeu de chevaux que nous avons eu 

of the artillery made us lose the pour le service de l'artillerie, nous 

battle. a fait perdre la bataille. 

The few horses which were given to Le peu de chevaux qu'on nous a 

us being exhausted, were of no donnes, etant extenues, ne servi- 

avail. rent a rien. 



1379. Of the Past Participles Coute and Vain. 

Coute and valu, although they are participles from neuter 
verbs, conjugated with to have, are sometimes susceptible 
of agreement ; but then they are used actively, and signify, 
causer, to cause, exiger, to require, instead of couter ; and pro- 
curer, to procure, rapporter, to bring, instead of valoir. 

Thus, we say, with agreement : 

The trouble which this affair has Les peines que cette affaire m'a 
caused me. coHUes, 

that is to say, m'a causees ; 

The honors which this office has Les honneurs que cette place m'a 
procured to me, valus, 

that is to say, have procured to me ; because here, the verbs 

32* 



378 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

couter and valoir are used actively, and preceded by their di- 
rect objects peines and honneurs. 

But we could say, without agreement : 

This affair cost me a great deal of Cette affaire m'a coUe une peine in- 
trouble, finie, 

This work has brought me an extra Cet ouvrage m'a valu une gratifica- 

compensation, tion, 

because the direct objects of the verbs couter and valoir, une 
peine infinity une gratification, are placed after the verb. 



1380. Remarks. 

We have said that the only rule about the past participle wag- 
to make it agree with its direct object only when that direct ob- 
ject precedes it in the construction of the sentence, and we 
have given all the necessary explanations to enable a person to 
find what is the word which is in reality the direct object of the 
verb ; there are some few cases in which the agreement of the 
past participle takes place, when the noun with which it agrees 
does not appear clearly to be its direct object ; we advert to 
some reflective verbs whose signification does not suffer the 
analysis of the sentence in the ordinary manner ; as, 

To suspect, Se douter, 

To perceive, S'appercevoir de quelque chose. 

To find fault with, S'attaquer a. quelqu'un, 

To seize, S'emparer d'un object, 

To abstain, S'abstenir, 

To escape, S'echapper, 

and others similar to these. 

We will now examine into these difficulties and show how to 
decide upon them. 

We write the following sentences showing the agreement, 

She has suspected that her servants Elle s'est douUe que ses domes- 
used to rob her, tiques la volaient, 

She has perceived that her husband Elle s'est appergue que son mari la 

deceived her, trompait, 

Why has this lady found fault with Pourquoi cette dame s'est-elle atta- 

me on account of a fact which I quie a moi pour un fait auquel 

know nothing about ? je suis completement etranger ? 

The English have always seized up- Les Anglais se sont toujours empa- 

on every thing they thought prop- res de ce qui leur a convenu sans 

er, without consulting right or jus- egard pour le droit et la justice? 
tice, 



VERB 379 

If these children had abstained from Si ces enfants s'itaient abstenus de 

eating unripe fruit, they would manger des fruits verts il n'au- 

not have been sick, raient pas ete malades, 

The prisoners have escaped from Les prisonniers se sont 6chapp£s de 

jail, prison, 

although it is impossible to analyze these sentences in any 
way satisfactory to the mind ; because we do not say, in 
French, 

Doubt somebody, Douter quelqu'un, 

Perceive one's self, Appercevoir soi-meme, 

Find fault with somebody, Attaquer quelqu'un, 

Escape somebody, Echapper quelqu'un, 

Seize some one, Emparer quelqu'un, 

Abstain from some one, &c. Abstenir quelqu'un, 

with the meaning given to these verbs in the preceding sen- 
tences ; yet the reason why usage has made them agree, is 
probably because they could be constructed as follows : 

She has put herself in doubt {for Elle s'est mise en doute. 

she suspected). 
She went to perceive {for she per- Elle s'est mise a appercevoir. 

ceived). 
She went to find fault {for she Elle s'est mise a attaquer. 

found fault with). 
She took possession {for she has Elle s'est mise en possession. 

seized). 

But whatever may be the reason, it is a matter of fact, that 
these verbs, and others of a similar nature, are made to agree 
by the tyrannical power of usage. We say, also, 

This house has been built in a few Cette maison s'est bdtie en peu de 

months. mois. 

This house has been well sold, well Cette maison s'est bien vendue, bien 

rented. louee. 

This house has been demolished in Cette maison s'est dimolie en peu de 

a short time. terns. 

Because we use to say, figuratively, 

Cette maison se batit, 
11 se demolit, 

" se loue, 

" se vend ; 

in which it is evident, that the mind operates upon the neutral 
nature of these reflective verbs and makes them active ; thus, 
when, in order to find the direct object of these participles, we 
ask the question, What ? we must be satisfied with such an ir- 
rational answer as the following ; 



380 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

This house has built, what ? Itself. 

" demolished, what ? Itself. 

" sold, " 

rented, " " 

because, if we were not, the pronoun preceding the verb 
ought to be its indirect object and represent a, to, with the di- 
rect pronoun, which would be still worse ; we could never un- 
derstand the meaning of the following sentences : 

Elle a dout£ a elle mime. 
" appercu •* 

" attaque " a, quelqu'un. 

" empare " 
" abstenu " 
" echappe " 

Cette maison abati a elle meme. 
" a loue " 

" a demoli " 

" a vendu " 

Thus, we may lay down the following rule : 

The participle of a reflective verb agrees with the reflective 
pronoun which precedes it, when this pronoun is identical with 
the nominative, and cannot possibly be replaced by the same 
pronoun preceded by the preposition d, to. 



OF PREPOSITIONS. 



1381. The word Preposition, whicb is expressed in Latin 
by prcepositio, is formed of prce, before, avant, devant, and 
ponere, to place, placer. Preposition, then, means what is 
placed before. 

Prepositions are words which serve to express or show the 
several relations which persons and things have with each other. 

1382. Prepositions are invariable ; they have neither gen- 
der or number ; alone, they express nothing ; they have a sig* 
nification only when followed with a regimen expressed or un- 
derstood. 

1383. They have, then, none of the properties belonging to 
nouns, but sometimes they are, however, used as nouns> taking 



PREPOSITION. 381 

the article in either number, but not in either gender ; as in 
the following expressions : 

The front of the house. Le devant de la maison. 

To start first. Prendre les devants. 

The back part of the house. Le derri&re de la maison. 

The inside of the palace. Le dedans du palais. 

The outer part of the city. Les dehors de la ville, &c. 

1384. It would be a great perfection in a language, if prep- 
ositions should express but one relation, between persons or 
things ; the style would be clearer ; but it happens, too often, 
that the same preposition expresses not only different relations, 
but relations which are entirely opposite ; for instance, in these 
sentences, 

Approach the fire ; stand back from Approchez-vous du feu; eloignez- 
the fire, vous du feu, 

the preposition de, of, expresses in the first part of the phrase 
a relation of approximation, and in the last a relation of re- 
moval. 

1385. We may divide prepositions into three different 
classes : 

1st. According to the formation of the word itself. 
2d. " " signification of the word. 

3d. " u regimen which it governs. 

The first class of prepositions are either simple or com- 
pound. 

1386. 1st. The prepositions which are called simple are 
expressed by one word only, as a, to, de, of, pour, for, sans, 
without, avec, with, &c. 

The prepositions which are called compound are expressed 
by the union of several words ; as, vis-a-vis de, opposite, a 
la reserve de, except, a cote de, by the side of, &c. 

1387. 2d. The prepositions, in regard to their significa- 
tion, are divided into as many classes as there are relations 
among words. 

13S8. 3d. The prepositions, in regard to their regimen, are 
divided into three classes : 

1. Those which do not require the use of another preposi- 
tion before the noun governed by them. 



382 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



2d. Those which govern the preposition of. 
3d. Those which govern the preposition to. 
1389. Examples of the first class. 



Before you. 
After him. 
Behind them. 



Avant vous. 
Apres lui. 
Derriere eux, &c. 



1390. Examples of the second class. 



Far from Paris. 
Near Bath. 
Out of London. 



Loin de Paris. 
Pres de Bath. 
Hors de Londres. 



1391. Examples of the third class. 

As far as Canterbury. 
As to myself. 
On your account. 



Jusqu'd Cantorbery. 

Quant a moi. 

Par rapport a vous. 



Before entering into the examination of the prepositions in 
regard to their signification, which is the best method to dis- 
cuss such a difficult subject, we shall, for the sake of foreigners 
who wish to learn the language, give a list of all our prepo- 
sitions according to the nature of their regimen. 



A List of Prepositions divided according to their Regimen. 

1392. As we have already said, some prepositions are fol- 
lowed by the noun which they govern without the help of any 
other preposition; some require the preposition de, of; four in 
number only, require the preposition a, to. 

1393. The following prepositions govern their regimen with- 
out the help of another : 



A, 


to. 


Durant, 


during. 


De, 


of. 


Pendant, 


whilst. 


Des, 


since, from. 


Entre, 


between. 


Avant, 


before. 


Parmi, 


among. 


Devant, 


before. 


Environ, 


about. 


Derriere, 


behind. 


Vers, 


towards. 


Avec, 


with. 


Envers, 


towards. 


Attendu, 


considering. 


Selon, 


according to. 


Vu, 


considering. 


Suivant, 


according to. 


Chez, 


at one's house. 


Comme, 


as. 


Apres, 


after. 


Contre, 


against. 


Depuis, 


since. 


Touchant, 


concerning. 


Dans, 


in. 


Concernant, 


concerning. 


En, 


in. 


A travers, 


through. 





PREPOSITION. 


383 


Sans, 


without. 


Sous, 


under. 


Pour, 


for. 


Dessus, 


upon. 


Moyennant, 
Nonobstant, 


with the help of. 


Dessous, 


under. 


notwithstanding. 


De-dessus, 


from upon. 


Excepte, 


except. 


De-dessous, 


from under. 


Hormis, 


except. 


Par-dessus, 


over. 


Hors, 


save. 


Par-dessous, 


under. 


Malgre, 


in spite of. 


Par de 5a, 
Par de la, 


this side. 


Outre, 


besides. 


that side. 


Par, 


by. 


Sauf, 


saving. 


Sur, 


upon, on. 






1394. The 


; following prepositions govern 


de, of, before 


their regimen 


: 






Aupres, 


near. 


Au derriere, 


behind. 


Pres, 


near. 


autour, 


around. 


Proche, 


near. 


aux environs de, 


about. 


Faute, 
Hors, 


for want of. 
out. 


A l'exclusion, 1 


one being ex- 
cluded. 


Loin, 


far. 


Au milieu, 


in the midst. 


Le long, 


along. 


Au niveau, 


level with. 


Ensuite, 


after. 


A cote, 


by the side. 


A cause, 


on account. 


Aux depens, 


at the expense of. 


A l'egard, 


with respect to. 


A la mode, 


after the fashion of. 


A 1'insu, 


( without one's 
t knowing. 


A force, 
Aux prix, 


by. 
for. 


A l'exception, 


c with the excep- 
( tion of. 


A raison, 


at the rate. 


Vis-a-vis, 


towards, opposite. 


A moins, 


for less than. 


A l'opposite, 


in opposition to. 


A la reserve, 


with the exception 


Au travers, 


through. 


A couvert, 


secure from. 


Au lieu, 


instead. 


A l'abri, 


sheltered from. 


Au moyen, 


by means. 


Au de-ca, 


this side of. 


Au peril, 


at the risk. 


Au de-la, 


beyond. 


A fleur, 


even with. 


Au-dessus, 


above. 


A rez, 


level to the ground. 


Au-dessous, 


below. 


A la faveur, 


by the means of. 


Au-devant, 


before. 


En depit, 


in spite of. 



Most of these prepositions are composed of a preposition 
joined to a noun ; and this is the reason why they require the 
preposition of between the two nouns, which could not follow 
each other without it. 

1395. The prepositions governing a, to, before their regi- 
men are the following : 

Jusque, until. Quant, as. 

Par rapport, as regards. Sauf, without prejudice 

to. 
The last one, sauf, is sometimes followed by to, sometimes 
not ; for we say : 

Saving your opinion. Sauf votre opinion. 

He has paid the debt, without preju- II a paye la dette, sauf a lui a re- 
dice to his claim against you. courir contre vous. 



384 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Of Prepositions considered in regard to their Signification, 

1396. The relations which are established by prepositions 
among persons and things, are so numerous and so diverse, 
that it would be nearly impossible to establish an accurate 
distinction among them all ; therefore we shall only consider 
those which are the more distinct, so as not to create confu- 
sion in the mind of the learner. 

We will, then, reduce the number of relations to eight ; as, 

1st. Relations of place. 

2d. u order, or arrangement. 

3d. u union, connexion. 

4th. " separation. 

5th. " opposition. 

6th. That which marks the end which the mind has in view. 

7 th. That which marks the cause. 

8th. That which marks the means. 

1397. 1st. The prepositions which have reference to place 
are the following : 

Chez, at one's house : 

He is at home. II est chez lui. 

Every one ought to be master in Chacun doit etre le maitre chez soi. 
his own house. 

Dans, in : 

He is in the house. II est dans la maison. 

He takes a walk in the garden. II se promene dans le jardin. 

Devant, before : 

Your image is always before my Yotre image est toujours devant mes 
eyes. yeux. 

Derriere, behind : 

An ambitious man never looks be- L'ambitieux ne regarde jamais der- 
hind. Here lui. 

Parmi, among : 
How many fools there are among men ! Que de fous parmi les hommes ! 

Sous, under : 
Fish live under the water. Le poisson vit sous l'eau. 

Sur, upon : 

Most birds live upon trees. La plupart dee oiseaux vivent sur 

les arbres. 



PREPOSITION. 



385 



Vers, towards : 

He takes his course towards the II se dirige vers Test. 

east. 
The magnet points to the north. L'aimant tourne vers le nord. 

1398. 2d. Those which mark order, arrangement, are the 
following : 

Avant, before : 

The news arrived before the mes- La nouvelle est arrivee avant le 
senger. messager. 

Jlpres, after : 

Vain people do not like to walk Les personnes vaines n'aiment pas 
behind. a marcher apres les autres. 

Entre, between : 

There is a treaty of peace between II y a un traite de paix entre les 
the different powers of Europe. differentes puissances de l'Europe. 

Depuis, since, from : 

Since the time of the creation men Depuisla. creation, l'homme ne s'est 
have not improved much. pas ameliore. 

Des, from, since : 

This river is navigable from its Cette riviere est navigable d&s sa 
source. source. 

1399. Those which mark union, connexion, are the follow- 
ing : 

Jlvec, with : 
We must know those with whom II faut connaitre ceux avec qui Ton 



we associate. 



s associe. 



Durant la guerre, les peuples, les 
arts, le commerce et les sciences 
souffrent egalement. 



Durant, during : 

During wars, people, arts, com- 
merce and sciences, suffer equally. 

Outre, besides : 

In order to succeed in the world, Pour reussir dans le monde, il faut, 
we must have much complaisance, outre des qualites aimables, un 
besides amiable qualities. grand fond de complaisance. 

Pendant, during. 

Pleasures are more lively and varied Les plaisirs sont plus varies et plus 
during the winter ; but are they vifs pendant l'hiver; mais valent- 
better than those we enjoy in the ils mieux que ceux dont nous 
country during the summer ? jouissons a la campagne pendant 

l'ete. 

33 



386 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Suivanty according to : 

I will decide according to circum- Je me deciderai suivant les circon- 

stances. stances. 

Selon, according to : 

A wise man acts according to the L'homme sage agit selon les maxi- 

principles of reason. mes de la raison. 

1400. 4th. Those which indicate separation are the fol- 
lowing : 

Sans, without : 

A woman may be amiable without Une femme peut etre aimable sans 

beauty. btauti. 

Hors, except : 

All is lost except honor. Tout est perdu Tiors l'honneur. 

Excepte, besides : 

Besides or except five or six phi- ExcepU cinq ou six philosophes 

losophers truly enlightened, all reellementeclaires, tousles pay- 

the pagans were plunged in ig- ens etaient plonges dans l'igno- 

norance. ranee. 

Hormis except : 

All have come home except my Touts sont rentres hormis mon 

brother. frere. 



1401. 5th. Those which indicate opposition are the follow- 



ing 



Contre, against : 

The people are leagued against the Les peuples sont ligues contre le 

best of Kings. meilleur des Roi. 

Malgre, in spite. 

He has done that in spite of me. II a fait cela malgri moi. 

Nonobstant, notwithstanding : 

He has persevered in his views, II a persiste dans ses vues, nonob- 

notwithstanding all that has stant tout ce qu'on a pu lui en 

been said about it. dire. 

1402. 6th. Those which indicate the end, are the following : 
Envers, towards : 

It is well to be charitable towards II est bien d'etre charitable envers 

the poor. les pauvres. 



PREPOSITION. 



387 



Touchant, about : 

He wrote me about this affair. II m'a ecrit touchant cette affaire. 

Pour, for : 

Formerly men sacrificed them- Autrefois Phomme se sacrifiait 

selves for their country, they pour la patrie, il travaillait pour 

toiled for glory ; in our days they la gloire ; de nos jours il ne fait 

work only for their interests and rien que pour ses interets et pour 

pleasures. ses plaisirs. 

1403. 7th. Those which indicate the cause and means are 
the following : 

Par, by : 

He has succeeded by his prayers. II a reussi par ses prieres. 

Moyennant, by means of : 

I hope to succeed by means of your J'espere reussir vioyennant votre 
assistance. assistance. 

Mendu, considering, on account : 

The messenger has not been able Le courier n'a pu partir attendu 
to sail, on account of head winds. les vents contraires. 

1404. 8th. The three prepositions, a, to, de, of, en, in, which 

form the last class, are employed in so many different ways, 

that we cannot dispense with speaking of them at some length. 

1405. A, to, indicates principally a relation of attribution ; 

as, 



This book is mine. 

I told my mind to my friend. 

Who owns this garden ? 



Ce livre est a moi. 

J'ai dit ma pensee a mon ami. 

A qui ce jardin appartient-il ? 

But this preposition indicates, also, 

1st. Place : 

I live in Versailles. 



2d. The End : 
I am going into the country. 

3d. Order : 
They go two by two. 

4th. State : 
He feels at ease. 



Je demeure h Versailles. 



Je vais a la cainpagne. 



lis vont deux a deux. 



II est a son aise. 



388 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

5th. Quality : 

There is no gold twenty-four ca- II n'y a pa3 d'or a vingt-quatre ca- 
rats fine. rats. 

Sometimes this preposition is merely expletive, and hence 
forms Gallicisms of which we shall speak hereafter ; as, 
Let us see who shall have it. Voyons a qui l'aura. 

This preposition is sometimes used for selon, according to ; 
as, 
This is not according to his taste. Ceci n'est pas a son gout. 

Sometimes instead of pour, for ; as, 
I take you as a witness. Je vous prends h temoin. 

Sometimes instead of avec, with ; as, 
They fought with swords. II se sont battus a l'epee. 

Sometimes instead of sur upon, on ; as, 

As soon as he had put his foot on Aussitot qu'il eut mis pied a terre. 
land. 

Sometimes instead of jusqu^a, until ; as, 

Until we see each other again. Au revoir (which means jusqu'au 

revoir). 





1406. .De, of, indicates principally a relation of extraction, 




that is to say, that from which a thing is extracted, whence it 




comes, or takes its name. This is the reason why we say, with 




de, of, 




A marble table. Une table de marbre. 

A silver dish. Un plat d'argent. 

A bridge made out of bricks and Un pont de brique et de terre. 




stones. 




But it indicates, also, 




1st. Property : 




The book of Peter. Le livre de Pierre. 




2d. Quality : 




This man has a lion's courage. Cet homme a un courage de lion. 




3d. Place : 




To go out of France. Sortir de France. 
To come from Italy. Venir d'ltalie. 




4th. Situation : 




To die of hunger. Mourir de faim. 
To jump with joy. Sauter de joie. 



PREPOSITION. 389 

5th. Cause, Means : 
To live on fruit. Vivre de fruits. 

This preposition is used in many other cases, and serves to 
construct a great number of idiomatical and adverbial expres- 
sions ; as, anew, de nouveau ; deliberately, de propos deli- 
here, &c. 

1407. En, in, indicates also many relations of a different 
nature ; as, 

1st. Place : 

To live in America. Vivre en Amerique. 

To go to France. Aller en France. 

2d. State : 

To be in good health. Etre en bonne sante. 

To be at peace, at war. Etre en paix, en guerre. 

To be with a night-gown on. Etre en robe de chambre. 

3d. Cause : 

To do a thing by hatred to anoth- Faire une chose en haine d'un au- 
er. tre. 

1408. En, dans, in, have a very similar signification, but 
dans marks a sense fixed and determinate ; as, 

Politeness reigns more despotical- La politesse regne plus despotique- 
ly in the capital than it does in ment dans la capitale que dans 
the provinces. les provinces. 

En, on the contrary, indicates a sense vague and indetermi- 
nate ; as, 
To live in the country. Vivre en province. 

But if we specify what province, then dans takes its place ; as, 

To live in the province of York. Vivre dans la province d'York. 

It is for the same reason that, although we say, indefinitely, 

To give one's self to be a specta- Se donner en spectacle aux autres, 
cle for others, 

we cannot use en if spectacle be qualified by an adjective, 
destroying the vagueness of the expression ; as^ 
Se donner en spectacle funeste. 

This sentence is not grammatical, although it is found in 
Racine. 

33* 



390 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

1409. A and en, to and in, give an entirely different mean- 
ing to sentences otherwise composed of the same words ; the 
following, for instance, 

My master is in town, Mon maitre est a la ville, 

signifies that my master lives in town now and not in the coun- 
try ; but the following, 

Mon maitre est en ville, 

signifies that my master is not at home. We say also : 

The army has begun the campaign. L'armee est entree en campagne. 

meaning that war has been commenced ; but we say : 

My master has gone into the country; Mon maitre est alle a la compagne; 

meaning that my master has left the city. 

1410. Respecting these modes of expression, usage must be 
consulted ; there is no sure indication to guide a foreigner, and 
time and practice are the best teachers which he may hope to 
find. How can he distinguish, for instance, that if he wishes 
to express that he lives in Paris, he must say : I live in Paris. 
je demeure d Paris, but if he speaks of any other thing but his 
residence, he must use dans instead of a ; as, 

There are more than a million of II y a plus d'un million d'ames dans 
souls in Paris. Paris. 

1411. En is sometimes joined to verbs, and entirely chang- 
es their signification. We shall give some examples : 

1st. 

If this business don't succeed, I Si cette affaire ne reussit pas, je 
will lay the blame on you. m'en pendrai a vous. 

1412. 2d. 

They had gone so far that they On en etait venu si avant, qu'il fal- 
had to conquer or die. lait vaincre ou mourir. 

1413. 3d. 

In presenting him with this pres- En lui faisant ce present, il assura 
ent, he assured his friend that a son ami qu'il n'en resterait pas 
he would not stop there. la, or qu'il ne s>en tiendrait pas la, 

or qu'il n'en demeurerait pas la. 

1414. 1st. 

People who know that they are Les gens qui se noient se prennent 
drowning grasp at any thing they a. tout ce qu'ils trouvent a leur 
find at hand. portee. 



PREPOSITION. 391 



1415. 2d, 



They had come as far as the woods lis etaient venus jusqu'au bois qui 
on the side of the main road. borde la grande route. 

1416. 3d. 

He gets hold of the rope, of the 11 se tient a la corde, aux branches, 

branches, &c. &c. 

He lives there. 11 demeure la. 

1417. We have already said, that prepositions always have 
a regimen expressed or understood ; this distinguishes them en- 
tirely from the adverbs, which never have any regimen from the 
very nature of their signification. These two kinds of words 
must never be mistaken for each other. 

1418. A word is a preposition when it does not represent a 
complete meaning without the assistance of a regimen, which, 
although not expressed, is easily supplied by the mind. In the 
following sentences : 

What did they do afterwards ? Que firent-ils apres? 

He lives far off. II demeure loin. 

Nothing has been done since. II ne s'est rien fait depuis. 

The words apres, loin, and depuis are prepositions, because 
the words cela, dHci, from here, and cette chose, this thing, are 
understood after them. 

1419. But, in the following : 

Do not go so far, N'allez pas si avant, 

avant is an adverb, because it cannot be followed by a regimen. 

1420. The same difference exists between autour and 
alentour, around ; autour is a preposition, which has no com- 
plete meaning without a regimen ; as, 

All the courtiers of the court were Tous les grands de la cour etaient 
around the throne. autour du trone. 

Whereas alentour is an adverb, which cannot have a regi- 
men ; as, 

The king was on his throne, and his Le roi etait sur son trone, et ses fils 
sons were around it. etaient alentour. 

1421. The same remark applies to avant and auparavant, 
before. Avant may be followed by a regimen, which is gen- 
erally the case ; as, 



392 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

I shall not go before Easter-day. Je ne partirai pas avant Paques. 

Auparavant never has any regimen, and is an adverb ; as, 

They say that you will soon go ; On dit que vous partirez bientot ; 
but come and see us before you mais venez nous voir auparavant. 
go- 

1422. The following sentence : 

Come and see us before you go, Venez nous voir avant de partir, 

was formerly written, 

Venez nous voir avant que de partir. 

Usage now proscribes this mode of expression. 
Venez nous voir avant que partir, 

would be a fault of language, the conjunction avant que govern- 
ing always the subjunctive mood after it ; it ought to be writ- 
ten : 

Venez nous voir avant que vous partiez. 

1423. Some grammarians pretend that avant, auparavant, 
and alentour are not adverbs, but mere prepositions, which 
they attempt to prove by the analysis of some phrases ; it may 
be so in some few cases, but they defy analysis in most all in- 
stances, so that it is far better to consider the words as adverbs 
altogether, so as to create no confusion in the mind of the stu- 
dent ; as in the following phrases : 

He has gone far enough into the II est alle assez avant dans le bois, 

woods. 

He has come when the winter was II est arrive bien avant dans l'hiver. 

far advanced. 

Impress this truth deeply in your Gravez cela bien avant dans votre 

memory. memoire. 

I had warned him long before. Je 1'avais averti longtems aupara- 
vant. 

The surrounding echoes. Les echos d 'alentour. 

1424. Foreigners, and too many Frenchmen, often mistake 
the adjective pret, ready, for the preposition pres, near. The 
adjective pret governs the preposition a, to, after it, whereas 
the preposition pres, near, governs de, of ; as, 

I am ready to do what you please. Je suis pret a faire ce qui peut vous 

plaire. 
My work is nearly finished. Mon ouvrage est prbs d'etre fini. 



De, 


of. 


Excepte, 


Pour, 


for. 


Hors, 


Jusque, 


until. 


Par, 



PREPOSITION. 393 

1425. The same fault is often made with the two preposi- 
tions, a travers and au travers, though au travers is followed by 
de, of ; as, 

He fought his way through the en- II se fit jours au travers des ennemis. 
emy. 

Whereas a travers has no preposition after it ; as, 

II se fit jour a travers les ennemis. 

1426. There are prepositions which govern other preposi- 
tions, with the assistance of an ellipsis. They are the follow- 
ing : 

except, 
by. 

1427. The preposition de, of, governs after it the following : 
apres, after, avec, with, en, in, entre, between, chez, at the 
house of, and par, by ; as, 

I speak after good authority. Je parle d'apres une bonne autorite. 

The upper part, the lower part. La partie d'en haut, la partie d'en 

bas. 
It is not always easy to distinguish II n'est pas toujours facile de distin- 
one's friends from one's enemies. guer ses amis, d'avec ses enne- 
mis. 
There are few among them. II y en a peu d'entre eux. 

I am coming from his house. Je viens de chez lui. 

By the king's orders. De par le roi. 

1428. Excepte and hors, except, govern nearly all other prep- 
ositions ; as, 

I have played against everybody ex- J'aijoue contre tout le monde ex- 
cept you. cept6, hors contre vous. 

When hors is used in this acceptation, it never takes of after 
it ; as, 

Except this, this article. Hors ceci, hors cet article. 

1429. Pour, for, governs apres, after, dans, in ; as, 

That will be for after dinner. Ce sera pour apres diner. 

In a fortnight. Pour dans quinze jours. 

But these phrases are not much used now, and it would be 
better to turn them differently. 

1430. Jusque may be followed by a, to, par, by, en, dans, 
in, sur, upon, and sous, under ; as, 



394 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Until to-morrow. Jusqu'a demain. 

As far as the other side of the moun- Jusque par dela les monts. 

tains. 

I followed him even to the roof. Je le suivis jusque sur le toit. 

We went as far as Italy, Nous allames jusqu'en Italie, &c. 

1431. Par, by, may be followed by chez, at the house of, 
dessus, above, dessous, under, devant, before, derriere, behind, 
and dega, dela, this way, that way ; as, 

Come by my house. Passez par chez moi. 

He is over head and ears in busi- II a des affaires par dessus les yeux. 

ness. 

He is on the other side of the sea. II est par dela les mers. 

You seized me from behind. Vous m'avez pris par derrihre, &c. 

These expressions, although grammatical, are far from being 
elegant, and ought to be avoided ; it would be better to say : 

Passez chez moi. 

II est au dela des mers. 

II vit en deca des monts, &c. 

1432. To the above remarks we have to add the three fol- 
lowing : 

1st. The prepositions void, voila, behold, are formed from 
the imperative mood of the verb voir, to see, with the addition 
of the adverbs ci, here, and la, there ; they are the only ones 
which may be preceded by a personal pronoun as their regi- 
men ; as, 

Here I am. Me voici. 

There thou art. Te voila. 

Here she is. La voici. 

Here is some. En voici. 

There we are. Nous voila. 

1433. 2d. Pendant and durant, during, whilst, have nearly 
the same meaning, but they are not always used to express the 
same idea. Durant implies continuation ; pendant refers only 
to time without implying necessarily the idea of continuation ; 
thus, we should say : 

The enemy have quartered during Les ennemis se sont cantonnes du- 
the winter, rant l'hiver, 

if we mean that they have remained quartered during all the 
winter ; and, 

Les ennemis se sont cantonnes pendant l'hiver, 
if we mean only that they took their quarters during the 



PREPOSITION. 395 

winter, without implying that they remained so during the whole 
time. 

1434. 3d. Devant ought to be used only to signify in the 
presence of or opposite to; as, 

They have appeared before the Us ont parti devant le juge. 

judge. 
He lives opposite the church. II demeure devant l'eglise. 

And avant ought to be used but to express a relation of pri- 
ority of time and place ; as, 

He has arrived before me. II est arrive avant moi. 

The article is placed before the L'article est place avant le nom. 
noun. 

But usage, and even the Academy make devant refer to 
place, and avant refer to time only, and we must submit to their 
decision. 

1435. A noun, as we have already said, may be governed 
by two prepositions, provided these two prepositions do not re- 
quire a different regimen ; thus, we should say, 

He who, according to circumstan- Un homrae qui, selon les circon- 
ces, writes for or against a party, stances, ecrit pour ou contre un 
is a contemptible man. parti, est un homme meprisable. 

1436. But it would be wrong to say : 

Un homme qui e*crit, selon les circonstances, enfaveur ou contre un parti, 
est, &c. 

because pour and contre govern the same regimen ; and enfa- 
veur governs de after it, while contre does not. 

We have now to examine the use of prepositions with the 
article, their repetition, and their place. 



Of the Use of the Article with Prepositions. 

1437. Prepositions being necessarily followed by a regimen, 
this regimen is itself accompanied by other words which com- 
plete and determine its meaning. 

Some of the prepositions require their regimen to be pre- 
ceded by the article, and some do not ; but there are others 
which sometimes require the article and sometimes not. This 



396 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



admission of the article depends on the meaning of the sen- 
tence being definite or indefinite. 

1438. Rule 1st. The following prepositions require the 
use of the article before their regimen : 



Avant, 




before, 


Devant, 


before. 


Apres, 




after. 


Derriere, 


behind. 


Chez, 




at the house of. 


Durant, 


during. 


Dans, 




in. 


Pendant, 


it 


Depuis, 




since. 


En vers, vers, 


towards. 


Excepte, 


hors, 


except. 


Hormis, 


except. 


Nonobstant, 


notwithstanding. 


Parmi, 


among. 


Selon, 




according to. 


Sans, 


under. 


Suivant, 




it 


Touch ant, 


about. 



1439. But when the nouns governed by these prepositions 
are definite in themselves, the article, not being necessary to 
give them that character; is then suppressed, as before pro- 
nouns, proper names of persons, cities, &c. ; thus, we say : 



At your house. 

In Paris. 

Under Henry IV. 



Chez vous. 
Dans Paris. 
Sous Henry IV. 



1440. Rule 2d. The preposition en, in, is, except in a 
very few cases, never followed by an article ; as, 

To be in office. Etre en place. 

To fish in muddy water. Pecher en eau trouble. 

This business has been discussed be- Cette affaire a ete discutiee en plein 

fore the whole parliament. parlement. 

This woman is under her husband's Cette femme est en puissance de 

control. mari. 

He is in the way of succeeding. II est en passe de reussir. 

He acts as a king. II agit en roi. 

We say that en, in a very few cases, could be followed by 
the article ; they are the following : 

1st. Before a noun singular beginning with a vowel or an h 
mute ; as, 

I have done this in the absence of J'ai fait cela en /'absence demon 
my father. pere. 

2d. In some old expressions, consecrated by time ; as, 

In the presence of God. En la presence de Dieu. 

This law-suit has been acted upon Ce proces a 6te juge en la grande 
in the great hall. chambre. 

But in no case is this preposition ever followed by the arti- 
cle used in the plural. 



PREPOSITION. 



397 



1441. Rule 3d. The following prepositions sometimes 
require, and sometimes do not require, the article after them : 



A, 

De, 

Entre, 

Malgre, 

Pour, 


to. 

of. 

between. 

in spite of. 

for. 


Avec, 

Contre, 

Outre, 

Par, 

Sans, 


with. 

against. 

besides. 

by. 

without. 


Sur, 


upon. 






With the Article. 


Without the Article 


To play on the smooth. 
Jouer sur le velours. 


To be on foot. 
Etre sur pied. 





St. Paul says, that the wife should 
be subordinate to the authority of 
the husband. 

St. Paul veut qu'il y ait de la subor- 
dination entre la femme et le mari. 

Without the passions where would 

be the merit. 
Sans les passions ou serait le merite. 

This bundle has come by the mes- 
senger. 

Ce paquet est arrive par le messa- 
ges 



A little politeness does no harm 
between husband and wife. 

Un peu de facons ne gate rien entre 
mari et femme. 

To live without the passions, is to 
live without pleasure or pain. 

Vivre sans passions, c'est vivre sans 
plaisirs et sans peines. 

He goes only by fits and starts. 
II ne va que par sauts et par bonds. 



Of the Repetition of Prepositions. 

1442. The prepositions, a, e?e, en, to, of, in, are invariably- 
repeated before each noun ; as, 



He owed his life to the clemency 
and the magnanimity of the con- 
queror. 

A true patriot is happy to serve his 
country, and to contribute to its 
glory. 

The same prejudices are found in 
Europe, Asia, Africa, and even 
America. 



II dut la vie a la clemence et a la 
magnanimite du vainqueur. 

Un homme devoue a son pays est 

heureux de le servir et de contri- 

buer a sa gloire. 
Les memes prejuges existent en 

Europe, en Asie, en Afrique, et 

en Amerique. 



1443. Other prepositions, and principally those of one syl- 
lable, are repeated when their regimens have no similarity in 
their signification ; as, 



In peace and in war. 

By strength and skill. 

With courage and inhumanity. 

34 



Dans la paix et dans la guerre. 
Par la. force et par Vadresse. 
Avec courage et avec inhumaniU, 



398 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

1444. On the contrary, they are not repeated when their 
regimens are synonymous, or nearly so : 

In effeminacy and idleness. Dans la mollesse et l'oisivete. 

By force and violence. Par la force et la violence. 

"With courage and intrepidity. Avec courage et intrdpidiU. 

Through dangers and obstacles. A travers les dangers et les obstacles. 



Of the Place of Prepositions. 

1445. Prepositions have no fixed place in the French lan- 
guage ; when a word is governed by one of them, it is placed 
sometimes at the beginning, sometimes at the end, sometimes, 
again, in the middle of the sentence ; this word generally ex- 
presses a modification of another word ; it ought, then, to be 
placed so as to show clearly the relation which the mind has in 
view, and, provided the idea is expressed clearly, it matters 
not where the preposition is placed, the ear is the only guide, 
and must be consulted with care. 

1446. Rule. Prepositions which, with their regimen, ex- 
press a circumstance of another word, ought, if possible, to be 
placed near the word which they thus modify ; as, 

"We see many people who, although On voit bien des gens qui, avec 

very witty, commit great faults. beaucoup d'esprit, commettent de 

grandes fautes. 

I have sent to the post-office the J'ai envoye a laposte les lettres que 

letters which you have written. vous avez ecrites. 

Do you think you can, by kindness, Pensez-vons pouvoir ramener, par 

reclaim those misguided minds ? la douceur, ces esprits egares ? 

1447. If, in these sentences, we change the place of the 
prepositions, there will be an ambiguity, because we may 
say, with another meaning : 

Commettre des fautes avec esprit. 
Ecrire des lettres a la poste. 
Des esprits egares par la douceur. 

Therefore, when a preposition is used to modify, with its 
regimen, a preceding word, clearness must be consulted first, 
then the ear, and above all, ambiguity ought to be avoided. 



PREPOSITION. 399 

1448. The use of prepositions, in order to be explained 
completely, would require volumes. We will give, hereafter, 
several long lists of the verbs and adjectives which require 
prepositions before their regimen, with illustrations for each 
case ; a laborious work, which is not to be found so complete 
in any other grammar, and was much needed by those who 
wish to acquire a correct knowledge of the language. We 
will now enter into some details about this difficult matter, 
and follow in the steps of Boinvillers, who has said all that it 
is important to know of the subject. 

We have already said, that prepositions determine really 
the relation which exists between two propositions, one being 
the antecedent, the other the complement ; we have also de- 
scribed the different relations established by them ; we will 
now examine some of the most difficult cases for foreigners 
to understand fully. 

1449. Of the Preposition de, of. 

When a noun depends upon another, or upon an infinitive, 
expressing a state of dependency, the preposition, of, de, is 
generally used to express this kind of relation ; as, 

The sight of nature delights me. Le spectacle de la nature m'en- 

chante. 

I admire the greatness of the works J'admire la grandeur des ouvrages 
of God. de Dieu. 

I do honor the power of the King of J'honore la puissance du Roi des 
kings. rois. 

Most men do not understand their La plupart des hommes ehtendent 
interests well, for instead of quiet- rnal leurs interets; au lieu de la 
ness, they seek honors which tranquillite, ils recherchent les 
destroy the peace of life. honneurs qui detruisent le repos 

de la vie. 

Kings have around them crowds of Les rois ont autour c?'eux quantite 
courtiers and flatterers, who think dc courtisans et de flatteurs, qui 
of nothing but to ruin them, pro- ne cherchent que les moyens de 
vided they are weak enough to les perdre, quand ils ont la fai- 
lend their ears to their deceiving blesse de preter l'oreille a leurs 
adulations. adulations mensongeres. 

(We must not forget that du is used for de le, and des for de les.) 

1450. Infraction de. 

It would be wrong to say, an infraction against the law, une 
infraction contre la loi ; for we say, infringe, violate, trans- 



400 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

gress a law, as well as a violation, a transgression of the law ; 
why not say, then, an infraction of the law, une infraction de 
la hi ; we find in D'Aguesseau, the great chancellor of France : 

It is to the law alone that man is C'est a la loi seule que Thomme 
responsible for the infractions of doit compte des infractions de la 
the law itself. loi meme. 

Some persons say, for an infraction of the law, une infrac- 
tion a la loi ; in using such an expression, they mistake the 
word infraction for contravention, which requires to, a, after 
it, because we say, with the infinitive, contrevenir a la loi. 

1451. Nouns preceded by an Adjective, and used in a 
partitive sense. 

When a noun, taken in a partitive sense, is preceded by an 
adjective, the preposition, of, de, alone, without the article, is 
used before it, whether the noun be employed as a nomina- 
tive or a regimen ; as, 

Numerous flocks were wandering in De nombreux troupeaux erraient dans 

the valley. la plaine. 

We saw young shepherds seated Nous vimes de jeunes bergers assis 

under high poplars. sous de hauts peupliers. 

1452. Indefinite Pronouns quelque chose, quoi, quoi que 
ce soit, rien, &c. 

The indefinite pronouns and nouns, quelque chose, some- 
thing, quoi, what, quoi que ce soit, whatever it may be, rien, 
nothing, are always followed by de, of, when preceding an 
adjective : as, 

Something majestic. Quelque chose de majestueux. 

What is more noble than this con- Quoi de plus noble que cette con- 
duct, duite. 

I could not obtain from them any Je ne n"ai pu obtenir d'eux quoi que 
thing good. ce soit dehon. 

I know nothing more delicate. Je ne connais rien de plus delicat. 

1453. Cardinal numbers preceded by en and followed by 
de before an Adjective. 

When a cardinal number has for its antecedent the pronoun 
en, the adjective or past participle which follows the number 
ought to be preceded by of, de : as, 



PREPOSITION. 401 

Out of thirty battles which were Sur trente batailles qui furent liv- 

fought, there was not one lost. rees, il n'y en eut pas une deperdue. 

Out of three hundred young men Sur trois cents jeunes gens qui ont 

who have studied, there are not etudie,il n'y ena, yas trois dliabiles 

three able to compose in Latin. a composer en Latin. 

But if the cardinal number had to be followed by a noun 
instead of an adjective, the phrase would be defective, and 
should be constructed differently : as, 

Out of two hundred inhabitants, we Sur deux cents habitants, nous en 

counted one hundred and thirty con tames cent trente qui se firent 

of them who made themselves soldats. 
soldiers. 

We could not say : 

Nous en comptames cent trente de soldats. 

1454. De used instead of parmi, among. 

De is often used instead of parmi, among : as in the fol- 
lowing sentences, 

Among twenty crowns which were De vingt ecus qui nous furent remis, 

paid us, we found fifteen counter- il s'en trouva quinze de faux. 

feit. 

One of my friends has gone to Un de mes amis est alle en Ame- 

America. rique. 

None of the passengers have per- Pas un des passagers n'a peri. 

ished. 

Who of you would dread the rage Qui de vous craindrait les fureurs de 

of Neptune? Neptune? 

None of us have foreseen the return Personne de nous n'avait prevu le 

of the king. retour du roi. 

Cato passed for the wisest man Caton passait pour le plus sage des 

among the Romans. Romains. 

1455. De used for avant, before. 

De is still used instead of avant, before : as, 

I do not believe he will come before Je ne crois pas qu'il vienne de huit 
eight days. jours. 

1456. De used for depuis, since. 

I have not slept for (since) ten Je n'ai pas dormi de dix jours, 
days. (Not much used.) 

1457. Familiar expressions used loith de. 

We also use de in the following familiar expression : 

Behold, here is a new thing now! En voila bien d'un autre, mainte- 

nant. 

. ' 34* 



402 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Many people write the same expression in the feminine, but 
it is a fault ; we find in Gresset : 

En voici bien d une autre, eh ! dis moi, je te prie. 

and in Chabanon : 

Moi femme ! oh ! pour le coup, en voici bien aVune autre. 

Although de is often used instead of parmi, this last word 
must not be employed instead of de. Thus we could not say : 

Of all the senses which I have just Parmi touts les caracteres que je 
described the best is taste. viens de decrire le meilleur est 

la saveur. 

because parmi is only applied in French to living beings ; 
whereas, de is used for all cases. 
Thus we say : 

De tous les caracteres que je viens de decrire, le meilleur est la saveur. 

Of all the novels which have been De touts les romans qui ont paru 

published for many years, I have depuis bien des annees je n'en 

not found one that pleased me so ai trouve aucun qui m'ait autant 

much as Don Quixote. plu que Don Quichotte. 

1458. De used with plus and moins, more, less, instead of 

que, that. 

De must be used after the adverbs plus and moins, more, 
less, where the term of comparison, which follows the adverb 
of quantity, represents some precise and positive measure of 
this same quantity ; as, 

This cellar appears longer by half Ce caveau parait plus long que 

a foot than the other. l'autre tfun demi-pied. 

This man is all of a head shorter Cet homme est plus petit que vous 

than you. de toute la tete. 

This book is not worth more than Ce livre ne vaut pas plus de deux 

two dollars. gourdes. 

This room is not less than twenty Cette chambre n'a pas plus de 

feet long. vingt pieds de longueur. 

The first sentence meaning, that, the cellar has a greater 
number of half feet in length than the other by one half foot. 

The second sentence meaning that measuring the man by 
the length of a head, he was a whole head less in height than 
the other. 

The third sentence meaning, that, the book is not worth a 
greater number of dollars than two. 



PREPOSITION. 



403 



The fourth sentence meaning that the room has not a less 
number of feet in its length than twenty. 
It would be a fault to say : 

Ce livre ne vaut pas pins que deux gourdes 

Cette chambre n'a pas plus que vingt pieds de longueur, &c. 



We also say : 
You are much taller than I. 



Vous etes plus grand que moi de 
beaucoup. 



1459. De used after plutot que, rather than. 

De is used after the conjunction que, that, preceded by plu- 
tot, rather ; as, 



I will renounce life and its pleas- 
ures, rather than commit such an 
act of injustice. 

May God let me perish rather than 
permit idleness and voluptuous- 
ness to invade my heart. 



Je renoncerai a la vie, a ses dou- 
ceurs, plutot que de commettre 
une telle injustice. 

Que Dieu me laisseperirpZu/df^we 
de souffrir que la mollesse et la 
volupte s'emparentde mon cceur. 



1460. De used with valoir mieux, to be better, followed by que. 

De is also used with valoir mieux, to be better, followed by 
que; as, 



It is better to suppress a witty ex- 
pression, which is about to es- 
cape our lips, than to pain any 
one by it. 

It is a hundred times better to run 
the risk of incurring ingratitude, 
than to fail to discharge the du- 
ties of humanity. 



II vaut mieux etouffer un bon mot 
qui est pres de nous echapper, 
que de faire de la peine a qui que 
ce soit. 

E vaut mieux cent fois s'exposer a 
faire des ingrats, que de manquer 
aux devoirs de l'humanite. 



1461. De used with avant que. 
De is used after avant que before an infinitive ; as, 



We must think before acting. 

I will bring you back to the island 
of Ithaca before going to Epirus. 

We must pay our debts, the salary 
of our workmen, the wages of 
our servants, before being char- 
itable. 

Before writing books, learn how to 
think. 



II faut penser avant que rf'agir. 
Je vous ramenerai a Ithaque avant 

que d'aller en Epire. 
II faut payer ses dettes, le salaire 

de ses ouvriers,les gages de ses 

domestiques, avant que de faire 

des charites. 
Avant que d'ecrire, apprenez a 

penser. 



We shall see, speaking of the conjunctions when and if, 



404 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



where the conjunction que may be suppressed in sentences sim- 
ilar to the preceding. 



1462. De used in the phrases, de peur de, de crainte de, for 
fear of or that. 

It is by a reprehensible neglect that some writers omit the 
use of de, of, in expressions similar to these : de peur que, de 
crainte que, for fear that ; it would be wrong to write, with a 
well known author, 

Let us not judge others with too Ne jugeons pas les autres avec 

much severity, for fear that they trop de severite, crainte qu'ils ne 

should retaliate upon us with the nous rendent la pareille; 
same spirit ; 

it ought to be de crainte. We must also say : 



Pride does not approve of any 
thing, for fear of appearing sub- 
missive to the opinions of others. 

Charles the Seventh abstained from 
eating for fear of being poison- 
ed by his wife, and absolutely 
died for fear of dying. 



L'orgueil n'approuve rien de peur 
t/'avoir Pair de se soumettre a 
l'opinion d'autrui. 

Charles Sept s'abstint de manger 
de peur d'etre, or par la peur 
d'etre, empoisonne par sa femme, 
et se laissa mourir de peur de 
mourir. 



1463. De used expletively. 

De, in many expressions, is merely expletive, has no distinct 
functions, could be dispensed with, and is used only as an idiom 
arising from habit and usage, as in the following sentences : 



An honest father. 

A queer genius. 

One woufd have said he was a real 

devil when he recited his poetry. 
There were thirty killed, and one 

hundred and sixty wounded. 
If I was you, I would not bear that. 

The month of September is the 

most pleasant of the year. 
The river Rhone is the most rapid. 

It is a crime not to acknowledge a 

service. 
Although you have to come, let it 
not prevent you from writing to us. 
What is more glorious than for one 

to conquer his passions ? 
I am not so foolish as to aspire to 

the grandeur of the earth. 



Un honnete homme de p£re. 

Un drole de corps. 

On aurait dit cfun demoniaque, 

quand il recitait ses vers. 
II y en eut trente de tues et cent 

soixante de blesses. 
Si j'etais de vous je ne souffrirais 

pas cela. 
Le mois de Septembre est le plus 

agreable de l'annee. 
Le fleuve du Rhone est le plus ra- 

pide. 
C'est un crime que de ne pas re- 

connaitre un service. 
Quoique vous deviez venir,ne lais- 

sez pas de nous ecrire. 
Quoi de plus beau que de vaincre 

ses passions ? 
Je ne suis pas si fou que ePambition- 

ner les grandeurs de la terre. 



PREPOSITION. 405 

It is a great misery to have law- C'estunegrandemisereque d'avoir 

suits. des proces. 

You are very cruel to treat him Vous etes bien cruel de le trailer 

thus. ainsi. 

It is not enough to be clear, we C'est peu que cTetre clair, il faut 

must be precise. etre precis. 

I have not yet kissed him to-day. Je ne l'ai pas encore embrasse 

d'aujourd'hui. 

1464. Difference between ne faire que, and ne faire que de. 

There is a great difference between the two following ex- 
pressions, ne faire que and ne faire que de. They are used 
one for the other from want of knowing their true significa- 
tion ; the following sentences will show how they differ : 

She has just left the house. Elle ne fait que de sortir. 

She is constantly going in and out Elle ne fait que sortir de la mai- 

of the house. son. 

You do nothing but sing instead of Vous ne faites que chanter au lieu 

working. de travailler. 

We had just finished this reading Nous ne faisions que J'achever 

when you came in. cette lecture quand vous etez en- 

tre. 

1465. Rendre justice, avoir tort, avoir raison, fyc. 

The expressions, rendre justice, to be just, avoir tort, to be 
wrong, avoir raison, to be right, perdre courage, to lose courage, 
and other similar phrases, being taken in an absolute meaning, 
that is to say, conveying to the mind but one absolute idea, 
ought to be written, 
You give yourself very little credit, Vous ne vous rendez^?as justice, 

and not 

Vous vous rendez peu de justice. 

You are more wrong than he is, Vous avez plus tort que lui, 

and not 

Vous avez plus de tort que lui. 

They are right to appreciate lis ont bien raison d'estimer la 
science, science, 

and not 

Vous avez bien de la raison d'estimer la science. 
We should be less dispirited, Nous perdrions moins courage, 

and not 

Nous perdrions moins de courage, 
because in all these sentences the adverbs of quantity could be 



406 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

placed after the compound expressions so as to modify them ; 
as, 

Vous vous rendez justice peu. 
Vous avez tort plus que lui. 
lis ont raison beaucoup, &c. 
Nous perdrions courage moins, &c. 

which shows that the adverb modifies the compound word as a 
whole, instead of acting only on a part of it. 

1466. ldiomatical expressions in which de ought not to be used. 

Several writers are wrong when they use the preposition de 
in the following idiomatical expressions, which serve to express 
a moral difference between persons and things ; as, 

They are very far from having ex- II s'en faut beaucoup (and not de 
pressed all that may be said on beaucoup) qu'on ait tout dit sur 
this subject. cette matiere. 

How far are the modern historians Combien (and not de combien) s'en 
from being equal to Herodotus faut-il que les historiens mod- 
and Titus Livius. ernes egalent Herodote et Tite 

Live. 

They were very near losing their II s'en fallut bien peu (and not de 
case. bien peu) qu'ils ne perdissent 

leur proces. 

Voltaire has said also : 

Before Peter the Great, Russia was II s'en fallait beaucoup, avant Pierre 
very far from having as large a le Grand, que la Russie fut aussi 
population as it has now. peuplee qu'elle l'est de nos jours. 

Neither is it more correct to say : il s'en fallait de beaucoup, 
than it would be to say : il s'en fallait de bien, which expres- 
sion is rejected by all ; and besides, the analysis shows, that as 
the pronoun en means de cela, of it, the verb falloir, if de 
were used before the adverb, would have two different relations, 
each governed by de, of, which is against the general rules of 
the language, as we have explained before. 

1467. But when we wish to express that the quantity or the 
magnitude of any thing, (modified by the adverb,) which ought 
to be found in an object, is deficient, then we must use the 
preposition de, of; as, 

You think you have returned me Vous croyez m'avoir tout rendu, 
all, but you are far from having mais il s'en faut de beaucoup. 
done it. 



PREPOSITION. 407 

If I am not as tall as you, there is Si je ne suis pas aussi grand que 
but very little difference. vous, il ne s'en faut pas de beau- 

coup, or il s'en faut de peu. 
This vase was not far from being II s'en falJait de peu que ce vase 

full. ne fut plein. 

This page is very near ended. II s'en faut de peu que cette page 

soit terminee. 

Because in these sentences the adverbs have really their 
character of adverbs of quantity, acting upon objects which 
may be actually counted for more or less, and not referring to 
a moral difference between persons and things which cannot, in 
fact, be appreciated in the same manner ; and in such cases 
these adverbs are invariably accompanied by the partitive prep- 
osition de, of. The above sentences, if constructed differently, 
would present clearly the necessity of the preposition de ; as, 

Vous croyez, &c. mais il manque beaucoup de ce qu'il faudrait pour cela 

(en). 
Si je ne suis pas, &c. il ne manque pas beaucoup, or il manque peu, de 

ce qu'il faudrait pour cela (en). 

1468. De preceded by lequel des deux or similar expressions. 

We must not say, as many often do : 

Which was the more intrepid, Ce- Lequel des deux fut le plus intrepide, 
sar or Alexander ? de Cesar ou d' Alexandre ? 

The following analysis demonstrates the fault of this con- 
struction, which, although much in use, is absurd ; in this sen- 
tence we distinguish three distinct propositions ; as, 

1st. Who was the more intrepid ? Qui fut le plus intrepide ? 

2d. Was Cesar more intrepid than Cesar fut-il plus intrepide qu' Alex- 
Alexander ? andre ? 

3d. Was Alexander more intrepid Alexandre fut-il plus intrepide que 

than Cesar ? Cesar ? 

Thus, Cesar and Alexander are each the subject of a prop- 
osition ; but the subject or nominative of a proposition cannot 
be preceded by a preposition, it ought to be used purely by 
itself ; therefore, we must write : 

Lequel des deux fut le plus brave, Cesar ou Alexandre ? 

It was thus that the Latins were accustomed to speak ; it is 
thus that the English, Italians, and all those who have a lan- 
guage based upon reason, do speak in our days, and as their ex- 
ample is right, we must follow it. 



408 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

But the preposition de, of, ought to be retained in the fol- 
lowing sentence : 

Which of the two have historians Duquel des deux, les historiens ont- 
spoken of most honorably, Trajan ils parle le plus honorablement, 
or Marcus Aurelius ? de Trajan ou de Marc-Aurele ? 

because we find, in the analysis, Have they spoken more honor- 
ably of Marcus Aurelius than of Trajan ? Thus, duquel des 
deux, de Trajan, de Marc-Aurele, are governed by the verb 
to speak, which requires the preposition de, of, after it. By 
comparing this sentence, beginning with duquel, &c, with the 
preceding, which begins with lequel, and seeing that the first 
requires de before its complement when the other does not, we 
may conclude, that whenever a sentence constructed as they 
are begins with duquel, the complement takes de ; when, on 
the contrary, it begins with lequel, the complement takes no 
preposition. 

1469. An Infinitive, being the Nominative of a sentence, is 
never preceded by De. 

Nothing is more ridiculous than to place the preposition de 
at the beginning of a sentence which has an infinitive for its 
nominative ; the infinitive, then, following the same rule as the 
noun, which cannot, in any case, be preceded by a preposition 
when employed as a nominative ; therefore, the following sen- 
tences of a celebrated preacher are wrong : 

To wish to sound the heart of De vouloir sonder le cceur des sou- 
kings, would be to trespass on verains, ce serait entreprendre sur 
the rights of him who sounds the les droits de celui qui sonde les 
abysses. abimes. 

To place limits on his power, was De mettre des homes a son pouvoir, 

to limit the happiness of this mon- e'etait vouloir en mettre au bon- 

archy. heur de cette monarchie. 

They ought to begin with, Vouloir sonder, &c, and, Mettre 
des bomes, &c. 

These sentences ought not to be confounded with the fol- 
lowing, which requires o/before the infinitive : 

A man ought to be ashamed not to De manquerk sa parole, touthomme 
keep his word, doit avoir honte, 

because the infinitive, instead of being used as a nominative, is 



PREPOSITION. 409 

there governed by the verbal expression avoir honte, which re- 
quires de, of, after it ; this becomes evident by reversing the 
phrase ; as, 

Tout homme doit avoir honte de manquer a sa parole. 

The other construction, beginning with the infinitive, gives 
sometimes more strength and brilliancy to the expression. 

1470. Prendre une alUe de traverse. 

It is a fault of language to say, as many people do : 

Let us take this cross road, this Prenons ce chemin de traverse, cette 
cross path ; allee de traverse ; 

because we cannot say une allee de traverse, as we say une al- 
Ue de peupliers, meaning planted with poplars, the preposition 
de having a signification which does not suit the mind, in the 
former, when it does in the latter ; we must say, then, 
Prenons ce chemin, cette allee qui traverse ; 

or, still better : 

Prenons ce passage. 

1471. Manquer oVunyeu de jugement. 

It is wrong to say : 

Your mind was not quite right Vous avez manque d'un peu efejuge- 

this case. ment dans cette affaire. 

It ought to be : 

Vous avez manque unpen de jugement dans cette affaire. 

The former means : 

You have been deficient in a little of judgment, 

which is not what is meant ; and the latter : 

You have been a little inconsiderate in judging, 

which conveys exactly the idea the speaker has in his mind. 

We have, at great length, shown how and with what adjec- 
tives the preposition de, of, ought to be used, and we refer the 
learner to that part of the grammar which relates to them. 
35 



410 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

The past participles : 



Accuse, 


accused, 


Fache, 


displeased 


Charge, 


charged, 


Fatigue, 


tired, 


Cheri, f 


cherished, 


Ravi, 


delighted, 


Comble, 


crowded, 


Rempli, 


filled, 


Ennuye, 


wearied, 


Satisfait, 


satisfied, 



and many others, which must not be mistaken for the same 
words used adjectively, govern the preposition de, of. 

1472. Susceptible de. 

We say, with propriety : 

Youth is capable of receiving all La jeunesse est susceptible de rece- 
sorts of impressions. voir toute sorte d 'impressions. 

But this adjective must not be used to express that a person is 
able to do a thing, or has the capacity, or the necessary quali- 
ties for obtaining what he aims at, as in the following : 

This person is able to fill such a sit- Cette personne est susceptible de rem- 
uation. plir cette situation. 

It ought to be, est capable de. 

1473. Of the Preposition a, to. 

We have already explained what are the adjectives and verbs 

governing the preposition a, to. 

The past, participles : 

Adonne, addicted, Expose, exposed, 

Exerce, exercised, Permis, permitted, 

which must not be mistaken for the adjectives expressed by 
the same words, govern the preposition a, to. 

1474. Born for, Ne pour. 

We say ne pour, born for ; as, 

Alexander was bora to cause the Alexandre etait ne pour le malheur 
misery of kings contemporary with des rois ses contemporains. 
him. 

1475. Irritated at, Irrite contre. 
We say irrite contre, irritated against ; as, 



PREPOSITION. 411 

The neighbouring nations were irri- Les nations voisines etaient irriUes 
tated against him. contre lui. 

J 476. Hardi a, temeraire de, ingenieux a. 

The adjectives hardi, bold, ingenieux, skilful, and temeraire, 
bold, have no other regimen than a verb in the infinitive ; as, 

You are bold to undertake that Vous etes hardi a entreprendre tout 

which is above your strength. ce qui est au-dessus de vos forces. 

We are skilful in creating ourselves Nous sommes ingenieux a nous 

troubles. cre~er des peines. 

You are very bold to solicit an office Vous etes bien t&meraire de solliciter 

for which you are not qualified. un emploi auquel vous ne conve- 

nez pas. 

As to adjectives which have a different regimen from a, to, 
see what we have said in the article on adjectives. 



1477. To unite, Allier. 

The verb allier, to unite, governs the preposition a, to ; as, 

He knew how to unite wisdom to II sut allier la douceur a l'eloquence. 

eloquence. 

Virtue cannot unite with crime. La vertu ne peut s'allier au crime. 

She has married into one of the Elle s'est alliie a une des plus riches 

richest families in London. families de Londres. 



1478. Avoir affaire a, avoir affaire de. 

Avoir affaire a, to have to deal with, and avoir affaire de, 
to have need of, must not be used indifferently, the one for 
the other ; we should say : 

We have to deal with hard people. Nous avons affaire a des gens diffi- 

ciles. 

We must take care now whom we On doit prendre garde aujourd'hui 

have to deal with. a qui Von a affaire. 

We are in want of money. Nous avons affaire ^'argent. 

What do I want of all these suck- Qu'ai-je affaire de touts ces para- 

ers ? sites ? 

1479. Avoir duplaisir a. 

Avoir du plaisir, to take pleasure, governs the preposition a 1 
to, and not de, as some writers have used it ; thus, we say : 

We find true delight in assisting II y a un vrai plaisir a obliger un 
an honest man. honnete homme. 



412 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

1480. Avoir egard a, avoir des egards pour. 

Avoir egard must not be mistaken for avoir des egards ; the 
former signifies, to take into consideration ; as, 

Be so kind as to take my request in- Veuillez avoir dgard a ma priere. 

to consideration. 

We must always take into conside- On doit toujours avoir dgard au sexe 

ration the age and sex of those et a l'age des personnes a qui l'on 

we address. parle. 

The latter signifies, to have respect for ; as, 

A well bred child always has re- Un enfant bien eleve a toujours des 
spect for his parents. egards pour ses parents. 

Shame on those who have no re- Honte a ceux qui n'ontpasd'^ganfe 
spect for old age, pour la vieillesse. 

1481. Manquer oV egards. 

Manquer d'egards, to be wanting in respect, follows the same 
rule as avoir des egards, and governs pour. 



1482. Changer, meaning to barter. 

Changer, meaning to barter, governs the preposition contre, 
against, instead of pour, for ; as, 

He has bartered his furniture for II a change ses meubles contre des 

pictures of great value. tableaux de grand prix. 

We shall barter this old edition for a Nous changerons cette vieille edition 

new one. contre une nouvelle. 



1483. Echanger and troquer, to exchange. 

Echanger and troquer, to exchange, are generally used in an 
absolute sense ; as, 

They have exchanged prisoners. On a ichangd les prisonniers. 

I have exchanged my old coat. J'ai troqud mon vieil habit. 

1484. Changer, meaning to transform, to change. 

Changer, meaning to transform, to change, to convert, gov- 
erns the preposition en, in ; as, 

You vainly flatter yourself that you Vous vous flattez vainement de chan- 

can transform all metals into gold . ger touts les metaux en or. 
Christ changed water into wine. Le Christ a change 1 l'eau en vin. 



PREPOSITION. 



413 



1485. Commuer, to commute. 

Commuer, meaning to commute, to change, governs also the 
preposition en, in ; as, 

The king has commuted the sen- Le roi a commud la peine de cinq ans 
tence of five years of hard labor to de travaux forces en celle de cinq 
that of five years in jail. ans de prison. 

1486. Changer, meaning to leave one thing for another. 

Changer, meaning to leave one thing for another, governs 
the preposition de, of ; as, 

You ought to change your language Vous devriez changer de langage et 
and conduct. de conduite. 



1487. Comparer a, and not avec. 

It is more correct to say, comparer a, to compare to, than 
comparer avec, to compare with. This latter forms a sort of 
pleonasm, because comparer comes from the Latin comparare, 
which is composed of par are cum; consequently the preposition 
avec, cum, with, used with the verb is a repetition of the same 
word included in the verb itself ; thus, we must write : 



How ! art thou not ashamed to 
compare thyself with the great 
king ? 

Let us compare the works of nature 
with those of man. 

There is no church to be compared 
with that of St. Peter. 

If time compared with time, measure 
with measure, and term with 
term, amounts to nothing, what 
will it be if we compare time with 
eternity, where there is neither 
measure nor term ? 



Quoi ! tu n'as pas honte de te com- 
parer au grand roi ! 

Comparons les ceuvres de la nature 
aux ouvrages de l'homme. 

II n'y a pas d'eglise a. comparer a 
celle de St. Pierre. 

Si le temps compare au temps, la 
mesure a la mesure, le terme au 
terme, se reduit a rien, que sera- 
ce si l'on compare le temps a. 
l'eternite qui n'a ni mesure ni 
terme ? 



1488. Par comparaison a, and not, en comparaison de. 

We ought to say, par comparaison a, and not, en comparai- 
son de ; therefore we write : 



He made himself but little con- 
spicuous during the political trou- 
bles, at least in comparison with 
his three colleagues. 

35* 



II se fit peu remarquer pendant les 
temps de troubles, du moins par 
comparaison a ses trois collegues. 



414 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

1489. Condamner a, and not en. 

The verb condamner, lo condemn, governs only the pre- 
position a, to : as, 

They were condemned to ten years Us furent condamnis a dix ans 

of exile. d'exil. 

They sentenced this impudent slan- On condamna cet impudent calom- 

derer to pay a fine of three hun- niateur a trois cents gourdes 

dred dollars. d'amende. 

It would be sinning against the language to say, as some 
lawyers do : 

On condamna cet impudent calomniateur en trois cents gourdes d'amende. 
Us furent condamnis en dix ans d'exil. 

1490. Confier a. 

Formerly it was customary to say, confier en, to trust to, 
speaking of inanimate things, but now this mode of expression 
is banished from the language, and we must always say, con- 
fier a : as, 

We must not trust our secrets to On ne doit pas confier ses secrets a 

every body. tout le monde. 

Into what hands have you trusted A quelles mains avez vous confii ce 

this precious pledge ? precieux depot ? 

1491. Se confier, mettre sa confiance, prendre confiance en. 

But se confier, to have confidence, mettre sa confiance, to 
place confidence, prendre confiance, to rely on, require the 
preposition en, in : as, 

Happy is the king who loves his Heureux le roi qui aime son peuple, 

people, who is loved by them, qui en est aime, qui se confie en 

who has confidence in his neigh- ses voisins, et qui a leur confi- 

bours, and possesses their confi- ance. 
dence. 

He who places too much confidence Celui qui met une trop grande cow- 
in himself exposes himself to the fiance en soi-meme s'abandonne a 
mercy of the wicked. la discretion des mechants. 

Do you think that he relied on the Croyez-vous quHl ait pris confiance 

man with whom he was asso- en celui qu'il a associe a ses tra- 

ciated in his works ? vaux ? 

1492. Se cramponner a, and not sur. 

It is wrong to say : 

We must cling on the walls, II faut se cramponner sur la muraille, 

because sur means upon, at the top of, which implies contra- 



PREPOSITION. 415 

diction with the signification of the verb, for, once on the top of 
the wall, it is unnecessary to cling to it ; and, besides, this verb 
comes from the noun crampon, which is a sort of iron hook 
stuck to the wall, in order to help a person to mount it, ex- 
cluding entirely the idea of upon. We should therefore say : 
II faut se cramponner a la muraille. 

1493. Grimper sur, to climb. 

The verb grimper, to climb, on the contrary, conveys the 
idea of getting at the greatest height of an object, whether it 
be a tree, a wall, or a mountain, and consequently requires 
upon after it. We must therefore say : 

It is always dangerous to climb a II est toujours dangereux de grim- 
tree, per sur les arbres. 

How have you succeeded in climb- Comment avez-vous fait pour grim- 
ing to the top of that peak ? per sur le sommet de ce pic ? 

It is, then, wrong to say : 

Grimper la muraille, ) 

Grimper la montagne, > without the preposition sur. 

Grimper l'arbre. ) 

1494. Deliberer sur, touchant, to deliberate upon, on. 

Lawyers, magistrates, and people of similar avocations, are 
accustomed to say : 

To deliberate a business, Deliberer une affaire, 

meaning, to take cognizance of it ; but the verb deliberer is 
intransitive, and consequently requires its object to be preceded 
by a preposition, which is sur, upon, touchant, touching ; 
therefore we must say : 

We shall deliberate to-morrow on Nous dilibererons demain sur or 
this affair. touchant cette affaire. 

1495. Distinguer de, to distinguish from. 

Authors do not agree, whether the verb distinguer, to dis- 
tinguish, should be followed by the preposition de, from, alone, 
or accompanied by avec, with. The Academy uses them 
both, and we should hardly dare to oppose such high authority ; 
but not perceiving the necessity of this, as the two together 



Discerner, 


to discern. 


Separer, 


Ecarter, 


to deviate. 


Eloigner, 


Distraire, 


to divert. 


Demeler, 



416 FRENCH GRAMMAR, 

have in reality only the signification of de, of, we, for our own 
use, would employ this preposition alone, and say : 

Let us know how to distinguish our Apprenons a distinguer nos vrais 
true friends from those who are amis de (and not d'avec) ceux 
not such. qui ne le sont pas. 

The Jews know how to distinguish Les Juifs savent distinguer la fausse 
false from true coin. monnaie de (and not d'avec) la 

bonne. 

The same remark applies to the following verbs : 

to separate, 
to remove, 
to discern. 

1496. Embarrasser de, pour. 

Must we say, to be embarrassed with or for, etre embar- 
rasse de or pour ? as in the following : 

I am embarrassed to know what use Je suis embarrasse" de or pour l'em- 
to make of my money. ploi de mon argent. 

In order to fix the proper use of these two prepositions, de 
and pour, we must consider whether the embarrassment arises 
chiefly from the thing spoken of, or more particularly from 
circumstances attached to it ; in the first instance de is used, 
in the other, pour, for : as, 

I am not embarrassed with my Je ne suis pas embarrasse de mon 

money, but I am embarrassed for argent, mais je le suis pour l'em- 

the use which I ought to make ploi que je dois en faire. 
of it. 

I am not embarrassed about trans- Je ne suis pas embarrasse. de traduire 

lating Juvenal, but I should find Juvenal, mais je le serais pour en 

some difficulty in translating some traduire certains passages devant 

of its passages before modest peo- des personnes chastes. 
pie. 

He would feel embarrassed to an- II serait embarrasse" de vous repondre 

swer you at once, but he would sur le champ, mais il ne le serait 

not be so if he had time to think. pas pour vous repondre a loisir. 

If the embarrassment falls more directly on the object 
spoken of, we must use sur, on, instead of de or pour : as, 

I am embarrassed about the step I Je suis embarrasse" sur le parti que 
have to take. j'ai a prendre. 

But in no case ought the preposition a, to, to be used with 
the verb embarrasser ; therefore it is wrong to say : 

We should be much embarrassed to Nous serions bien embarrasses a lo- 
lodge so many people. ger tant de monde. 



PREPOSITION. 417 

It ought to be, pour loger. 

1497. Se familiariser avec, to familiarize oneh self with. 

It is a gross fault to say, to familiarize one's self to crime, 
se familiariser an crime ; this verb requires avec, with. This 
fault is the result of this verb being improperly used for s'ac- 
coutumer, to accustom one's self, which requires the preposition 
to ; thus we must say : 

By often speaking- a language we En parlant souvent une langue, nous 
familiarize ourselves with its nous familiarisons avec les tour- 
proper construction. nures qui lui sont propres. 

and not aux tournures. 

1498. Eire familier avec. 

Many persons commit a fault of another kind, quite as bad 
as the preceding, by saying : 

He has been for a long time fami- II est depuis longtems familier avec 
liarized to tell lies. le mensonge. 

It is familiarise avec, &c, which ought to be employed 
here ; or, changing the construction : 

Le mensonge lui est depuis longtems familier. 

1499. Se fier, to give faith, requires a, to. 

Se fier, meaning to put faith, requires the preposition a, to, 
after it : as, 

This gentleman is a man of honor, Monsieur est homme d'honneur, 

I put faith in his word. je me fie a sa parole. 

He who puts faith in everybody Celui qui se fie a tout le monde veut 

wishes to be deceived. bien etre trompe. 

We do not admit the use of en after se fier, and we think 
that those who do so mistake this verb for se confer. 

1500. Se fier, meaning to depend upon, requires sur. 

When the verb se fier means to depend upon, it is better to 
employ with it the preposition sur, upon, rather than en, in : as, 

Caesar depended upon his good for- Cesar se fiait sur sa bonne fortune, 

tune, which had never deserted qui ne l'avait jamais abandonne. 

him. 

How many people there are who Combien de gens se fient trop sur 

depend too much upon their own leur propres forces ! 

strength ! 



418 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

1501. Lier, meaning to tie, requires a, to. 

The verb lier, to tie, to bend, governs the preposition a, 
to : as, 

You ought to tie the goat to this II fallait lier la chevre a cet arbre. 

tree. 
Great interests tie me to your father. De grands interets me lient a votre 

pere. 
We are bound to the king by a Nous sommes lies au roi par un 

solemn oath. serment solemnel. 

1502. Lier, meaning to acquaint icith, requires avec, with. 

But the verb Her, meaning to acquaint with, requires avec 
after it : as, 

I intend to become acquainted with J'ai dessein de me Her avec votre 

your family. famille. 

We have been acquainted for years Nous sommes lies depuis longtems 

with all that is literary in Europe. avec tout ce qu'il y a de litteraire 

en Europe. 

We say also : 

Acquaintance with men of genius Les liaisons avec les hommes de 
cannot but be profitable. genie ne peuvent etre que profita- 

bles. 

1503. Marier, joindre, unir, to marry, to join, to unite, 
require a, to. 

The verbs marier, to marry, joindre, to join, unir, to unite, 
are of the same kind as the preceding, and require to, after 
them : as, 

We must marry her to a wise and II faut la marier oun jeune homme 

intelligent young man. sage et intelligent. 

The vine is well married to the La vigne se marie tres bien a l'or- 

young elm. meau. 

If you wish to marry them together Si vous vonlez les unir l'un a l'autre 

I will join to the portion of the je joindrai a la dot de la mariee 

bride a handsome present. un riche present de noces. 

1504. Meier a, avec, to mix with, among. 

The verb meter requires the preposition a, to, when it 
means to join, to unite ; but it requires avec, with, when it 
signifies to mix, to mingle : as, 

In joining the crowd one is seen En se melant a la foule, on n'est 
only by few. appergu que d'un petit nombre de 

personnes. 

We must know how to unite what II faut savoir meler 1' utile a l'agre- 
is useful to what is agreeable. able. 



PREPOSITION. 419 

This silk is mixed with the thread. Cette soie est melee avec le fil. 

We must mix water with wine. II faut meter l'eau avec le vin. 

He mixed an antidote with the II mela de l'antidote avec le poison, 
poison. 

1505. Mettre apres, for mettre a. 

A most barbarous expression has found its way into the 
mouths of many well-bred people ; it is this : 

Put the horses to the coach, Mettez les chevaux apres la voi- 

ture. 

which means, 

Put the horses behind the carriage. 

This phrase ought to be : 

Mettez les chevaux a la voiture. 

Yet we say, in a familiar manner : 

They have been for many days lis sont depuis longtems apres ce 
making this great work. grand travail. 

But this expression is as wrong as the preceding ; it ought to 
be constructed as follows : 

lis sont depuis longtems occupees a ce grand travail. 



1506. Occuper, to occupy, to employ, requires to. 

The verb occuper has two distinct meanings. When it signi- 
fies to be occupied, with an idea of work attached to it, it re- 
quires the use of the preposition a, to ; as, 

We must help the poor by employ- II faut secourir le pauvre, en Toe- 
ing them in useful things. cupant it des choses utiles. 

Why do you occupy yourself with Pourquoi vous occupez-vous a l'e- 
foreign languages before learn- tude des langues etrangeres, 
ing your own maternal tongue ? avant d'avoir appris votre langue 

maternelle ? 



1507. Occuper, meaning to think of, requires de. 

But when occuper means to think of, it governs the pre- 
position de ; as, 

You trouble yourself too much Vous vous occupez trop de ce qui se 

about what is passing in the city. passe dans la ville. 
A miser thinks only of his riches. L'avare ne s'occupe que de ses ri- 

chesses. 



420 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

1508. Amuser a, de. 

The verb amuser, to amuse, follows the same rule, according 
to its signification ; thus, we say : 

This young man takes pleasure in Ce jeune homme s'amuse <i la lec- 
reading good books, while his ture de bons livres, tandis que 
friends think only of trifles. ses camarades ne s'amusent que 

de bagatelles. 

1509. Participer a, to take part in. 

The verb participer, to participate, when meaning to take 
part in, requires the preposition a, to ; as, 

It is in some way to take part in a C'est en quelque sorte participer a 

crime, if you do not prevent it un crime que de ne pas l'em- 

when possible. pecher quand on le peut. 

Courageous soldiers take part in Les valeureux soldats participent & 

the glory of their general. la gloire de ieur general. 

1510. Participer de, to partake of. 

But when participer means to partake of, it must be fol- 
lowed by the preposition de, of ; as, 

This substance seems to partake of Cette substance semble participer 

the nature of fire. du feu. 

His enthusiasm partook of mad- Son enthousiasme participait de la 

ness. folie. 

1511. Se plaire takes the prepositions a, dans, en. 
The verb se plaire, to take pleasure, to delight, takes the 
prepositions a, dans, and en, according to circumstances ; thus, 
we say : 

A man with an educated mind Les homines d'un esprit orne se 

takes delight in study. plaisant A l'etude, or a etudier. 

A true philosopher is only pleased Le vrai philosophe ne se plait que 

in solitude. dans la solitude. 

A proud man is only pleased with L'orgueilleux ne se plait qu'en lui- 

himself. meme. 

1512. Prendre ktemoin. 

The expression, prendre a temoin, to call as a witness, re- 
quires the preposition a after the verb prendre ; as, 

I call you all, gentlemen, as wit- Je vous prends tous a temoin, mes- 
nesses of my tears, and of my sieurs, de mes larmes, de mon 
repentance. repentir. 



PREPOSITION. 421 

1513. Prendre pour temoin. 

But when we wish to express that we accept or produce the 
testimony of a person, then the verb prendre requires the prep- 
osition pour ; as, 

Do not forsake me, my friends, in Ne m'abandonnez pas, mes amis, 

this day of misfortune ; I call on dans ce jour de disgrace ; je vous 

you all as witnesses of my inno- prends touts pour Umoins de mon 

cence. innocence. 

There is still this difference between these two expressions, 
that, speaking of God and kings, we say les prendre a temoins, 
but not pour temoins. 

The word temoin, in prendre a temoin, with the preposition 
a, to, composes a sort of adverbial expression which does not 
take the plural ; the analysis could give, besides, a satisfactory 
account of the singular number ; because, when speaking of sev- 
eral individuals, we say, je vous prends a temoin, the mind ap- 
plies to each of these persons to be a witness, in case of need ; 
then, as they could not possibly testify but one after another, 
the mind is in the singular, and the word which is referred to 
must be in the same number. The same rule is observed in 
the following sentence : 

Happy those who, in the fine days Heureux ceux qui, dans les beaux 

of spring, fill their stores for jours du printems, amassent pour 

winter, as, for instance, the work- l'hiver ; temoin les fourmis labo- 

ing ants. rieuses. 

Temoin is used here by ellipsis, for/c prends a temoin. 

1514. Se ranger, to take the part of another, with de. 

When se ranger means, to take the part of another, it is 
followed by de, of ; as, 

I have always taken the side of the Je me suis toujours range du cote 

king. du roi. 

They all took the part of the la- lis se rangerent touts du cote des 

dies. dames. 

1515. Se ranger a, to agree with. 

But when se ranger means, to agree in opinion with a per- 
son, then it requires a, to, after it ; as, 
36 



422 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



We are too polite not to agree with Nous sommes trop polis pour ne 
the ladies. pas nous range?' & l'opinion des 

dames. 



1516. Retrancher de, to cut off. 

When retrancher means, to cut off, to take away, it governs 
the preposition de, of ; as, 

They have cut off two verses from On a retranche" deux couplets de 

this song. cette chanson. 

You ought to take this word from Vous devriez retrancher ce mot de 

your phrase. votre phrase. 

Everybody now cuts off his train Chacun, aujourd'hui, retranche de 

and equipages. son train et de ses equipages. 

1517. Retrancher a, to suppress. 

But when retrancher means, to suppress, to take from, then 
it requires after.it the preposition a, to ; as, 

It is often well to keep food from II est souvent bien de retrancher la 

a sick person. nourriture & un malade. 

He will take from his clerks one II retranchera & ses commis la moi- 

half of their salary. tie de leurs appointements. 

My lord, do not take from us our Monseigneur, ne nous retranchez 

pension. pas notre pension. 

1518. Reunir a, to unite with or to. 

It is a very common fault to say ; 

Turenne united prudence to cour- Turenne reunissait la prudence au 
age. courage. 

We may say properly, unite one thing to another, or reunite 
two things, but we cannot reunite one thing to another ; there- 
fore the preceding sentence ought to be rendered as follows : 

Turenne unissait la prudence au courage, 

or, 

Turenne reunissait la prudence et le courage. 

1519. River, to reflect, governs a, to. 

Rever has two different meanings : when it signifies, to re- 
flect, to think of, then it must be followed by the preposition a, 
to ; as, 



PREPOSITION 



423 



I have thought of your affair. J'ai reve h votre affaire. 

Let us think of the means of being Revons aux rnoyens d'etre heureux 
happy, and we shall be so. et nous le serons. 

1520. Rever, meaning to dream, requires de. 

But when rever signifies to dream, it requires the preposi- 
tion de, of; as, 

We dreamed the whole night of Nous avons revS toute la nuit de 

combats. combats. 

This unfortunate mother dreamed Cette malheureuse mere ne revait 

of nothing but tortures and pro- que de supplices et de proscrip- 

scriptions. tions. 

1521. Rever la gloire, fyc. 

We say, rtver la gloire, and rever le bonheur, without any 
preposition, for, to dream of glory, or of happiness ; but these 
expressions are only allowed in poetry as a license ; they are 
elliptical. 



1522. Saigner du nez, to bleed at the nose, to act as a coward. 

Many disputes have arisen among grammarians upon the ex- 
pression, saigner du nez, saigner au nez, or par le nez. Ac- 
cording to some of them, if you wish to express a bleeding of 
the nose, you must use the last ; whereas, the other designates 
a want of courage. But, if we consult the best of our writers 
who have introduced this expression, we find invariably, that 
saigner du nez is the only one admitted for both significations, 
and the other two, saigner au, or par le nez, are mere barba- 
risms. We find, in J. J. Rousseau : 



This Gauthier, an impudent and 
cowardly fellow, bleeds at the 
nose, and, in order to avenge 
himself, accuses my father of 
having drawn his sword in the 
city. 

They say, that Duchesne, the 
secretary of Francis the First, 
showed signs of cowardice when 
apples were presented to him. 



Ce Gautier, homme insolent et 
lache, saigne du nez, et, pour se 
venger, accuse mon pere d'avoir 
mis l'epee a la main dans la ville. 



On pretend que Duchesne, secre- 
taire de Francois Premier, sai- 
gnait du nez quand on lui offrait 
des pommes. 



424 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

1523. Songer and pens er, to think, to have an opinion. 

Although the verbs songer and penser, to think, are nearly 
synonymous in their signification, they must not be used indif- 
ferently, one for the other, because they differ sometimes in 
their construction. Songer never takes a direct object, where- 
as penser, meaning to have an opinion, has a direct object, and 
governs the preposition de, of, before its indirect complement. 
Thus, although we may say : 

Misers too often think of the next Les avares songent, or pensent, 

day. trop souvent au lendemain. 

I should have thought sooner of J'aurais plutot songe a vous et d, 

you, and of the business you l'affaire que vous m'avez recom- 

have recommended to my care, mandee. si j'avais eu le temps de 

if I had had time to think of penser ti moi, 
myself, 

we cannot say : 

The minister has a very favorable Le ministre songe de vous des 
opinion of you. choses tresjlatteuses. 

In this acceptation, the verb, having a direct object, must be 
expressed by penser ; as, 

Le ministre pense de vous des choses tres flatteuses. 

1524. Soupirer, to sigh. 

Soupirer, meaning, to sigh, is only used in an absolute sense, 
without any regimen ; as, 

How many poor wretches are Combien de malheureux gemissent 
groaning and sighing without et soupirent sans proferer la 
uttering a single complaint ! moindre plainte ! 

1525. Soupirer, to wish ardently. 

When soupirer means, to wish ardently, it is followed by an 

indirect object with the preposition apres, after ; as, 

You are longing for honors and Vous soupirez apres les honneurs 

dignities ; but are they really et les dignites ; mais sont-ils 

worth the trouble to seek for bien dignes d'etre recherches ? 
them ? 

1526. Soupirer, meaning, to aspire to a thing, the absence of 
which may make one sigh. 

Soupirer, meaning, to wish for a thing, the absence of which 
may cause one to sigh, requires the preposition pour, for ; as, 



PREPOSITION. 425 

Lovers long to gain the heart of Les amans soupirent pour le cceur 
those they love. de celles qu'ils adorent. 

The verb soupirer is elegantly used actively in poetry ; Ra- 
cine has said : 

Toi qui du meme jougsouffrantl'oppression, 
M'aides a soupirer les malheurs de Sion. 

Boileau has also said : 

Ce n'etait pas jadis sur ce ton ridicule, 
Qu'amour dictait les vers que soupirait Tibule. 

1527. Soustraire, to withdraw, to free, to save. 

Soustraire, meaning, to withdraw, to free, requires the prep- 
osition a, to, after it ; as, 

You could not withdraw them from Vous ne sauriez les soustraire ti 

paternal authority. l'autorite paternelle. 

They have been saved from the On les a soustraits d, la fureur de 

rage of the populace. la populace. 

Why did they wish to free them- Pourquoi voulurent-ils se soustraire 

selves from the domination of & la domination de leur prince 

their legitimate prince ? legitime ? 

1528. Soustraire, to steal, to take away. 

But soustraire meaning to take away, to steal, requires the 
preposition de, of, after it ; as, 

Who has dared to take away this Qui a ose* soustraire cette somme 

sum from the account we had du compte que nous avions ar- 

settled together ? rete ? 

Some articles have been stolen On a soustrait quelques effets de la 

from the room where they were chambre ou ils etaient gardes. 

kept. 

1529. Survivre, to survive. 

The verb survivre, to survive, requires the preposition a, to : 
speaking of persons or things ; as, 

We cannot live long in this world On ne peut vivre longems dans ce 

without surviving some of our bas monde sans survivre a quel- 

friends. ques uns de ses amis. 

The glory of Homer has survived La gloire d'Homere a survecu aux 

the bitter criticisms of the Za'iles critiques ameres des Zailes de 

of all ages. touts les siecles. 

1530. Tomber a terre, tomber par terre, to fall to the ground. 

Although authors sometimes employ the following expres- 
sions : tomber a terre, tomber par terre, to fall to the ground, 
36* 



426 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

indifferently one for the other, there is a great difference be- 
tween the two. Tomber a terre is said of that, which, being 
elevated above the ground, falls from its place ; as, 

An aeronaut who is no longer able L'areonaute qui ne peut plus mai- 
to master his balloon, falls to the triser son ballon, tombe a terre. 
ground. 

Tomber par terre is said of that, which, being already on the 
ground, falls down ; as, 

The oak which is cut down falls to Le chene que l'on coupe, tomhe 

the ground. par terre. 

When Christ said to them, It is I, Quand le Christ leur eut dit, C'est 

they were prostrated, and fell to moi, ils furent renverses et tom- 

the ground. bkrent par terre. 

1531. Aimer mieux que, without and with the preposition de, of. 

The conjunction que, which follows the verb aimer mieux^ 
to prefer, is sometimes itself followed by the preposition o/*, 
and sometimes not, according to the meaning of the sentence. 

1532. Preference of will. 

When aimer mieux signifies, to prefer that which agrees best 
with our will, the conjunction que is followed by de, of ; as, 

I would rather die, than dishonor J'aimerais mieux mourir que de me 

myself. deshonorer. 

We would rather possess nothing Nous aimons mieux ne rien avoir, 

than the property of others. que de posseder le bien d'autrui. 

would rather displease you than Taimerais mieux vous deplaire que 

deceive you. de vous tromper. 

1533. Preference of taste. 

But when aimer mieux signifies, that which pleases our taste 

the best, then the preposition de is not used after que ; as, 

I would rather read than play. faimerais mieux lire que jouer. 

They prefer remaining silent to Ils aimait mieux se taire que parler 

talking inconsiderately. legerement. 

My aunt preferred singing psalms Ma tante aimait mieux chanter les 

to attending to the cares of our psaumes que veiller a notre edu- 

education. cation. 

1534. Suppression of the verb before de, of, followed by an 
infinitive, in poetry or animated style. 

Precision in the language allows, principally in poetry and in 
prose, when the style is animated, the suppression of the verb 
governing de, of, before an infinitive ; as, 



PREPOSITION. 



427 



Thus the people rush, to demand Aussitot le peuple d'accourir, de 

with cries, the execution of the demander a grands cris, l'execu- 

law, to threaten the magistrates, tion de la loi, de menacerles ma- 

&c. gistrats, &c. 

Here the verb s'empresser, to hasten, is suppressed, and the 
sentence is thus made impressive and rapid. This construction 
is borrowed from the Latin. 

1535. Difference between hors and hors de. 

There is this difference between hors and hors de, that the 

first signifies except, and is not followed by de, of, whereas the 

other expresses the exclusion of the object represented by the 

following word, and requires that preposition ; as, 

Tout est perdu hors l'honneur. 
Hors cela, je suis entierement de 

votre avis. 
Ceux qui etaient hors du territoire 



All is lost save honor. 

Except this, I agree with you on 
all points. 

Those who were out of the territo- 
ry of France have returned 
thither, to their great satisfac- 
tion. 

All the evils have been long out of 
Pandora's box, but hope remain- 
ed in it. 



de France y sont rentres a leur 
grande satisfaction. 

Tout les maux sont depuis long- 
tems hors de la boite de Pandore, 
mais l'esperance y est restee. 



1536. Au cas, en cas. 

There is this difference between these two expressions, au 
cas, en cas, that the first is always followed by the conjunction 
que, and the other by the preposition de, of; as, 

1537. Au cas que. 



We shall not go out, so that they 
may find us at home, if they 
come. 

We must provide for every thing, 
put all in order, for fear that this 
misfortune should fall upon us. 

1538. En cas de. 

If the wife survives, she will have 
all she brought at her marriage. 

You had better leave somebody at 
your house, if you intend to be 
absent for a while. 

In case of death, I have arranged 
all our domestic affairs. 

In this case we shall go and im- 
plore the clemency of the con- 
queror. 



Nous ne sortirons pas, arm qu'ils 

nous trouvent a. la maison au cas 

qu'Ws viennent. 
II faut tout prevoir, mettre tout en 

ordre, au cas que ce malheur 

nous arrive. 



En cas de survie, la femme jouira 
de tout ce qu'elle a apporte en 
mariage. 

Laissez quelqu'un dans votre mai- 
son, en cas rf'une absence pro- 
longed. 

En cas de mort, j'ai arrange toutes 
nos affaires domestiques. 

En ce cas, nous irons implorer la 
clemence des vainqueur. 



428 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

You ought, at all events, to stand Vous devez, en tout cas, rester ferme 
firm and quiet at your post. et tranquille a votre poste. 

1539. A defaut, au defaut. 

Au defaut and a defaut should not be used indifferently, one 
for the other. 

1540. Au defaut. 

Au defaut means, for want of and is always followed by the 
preposition de, of; as, 

For want of force we must use Au defaut de force, il faut user de 

shrewdness. ruse. 

He plunged his sword through the II lui plongea son epee au defaut 

joint of his armor. de la cuirasse. 

1541. A defaut. 

But the expression, a defaut, is only employed when the 
noun defaut is preceded by a possessive pronoun ; as, 

Instead of myself, I shall send my A mon defaut, j'enverrai celui qui 

representative. me represente. 

If you are missing, we shall take A votre defaut, nous prendrons la 

the person whom we think the personne que nous jugerons la 

most able. plus capable. 

1542. Avoir rapport a, avoir rapport avec. 

We must not confound the two expressions : avoir rapport 
a and avoir rapport avec. A thing a rapport a another, when 
one leads to another, or depends upon another, or results from 
another, or recalls another ; as, 

1543. Avoir rapport d. 

Subjects relate to principles, re- Les sujets ont rapport aux princi- 
sults to causes, and copies to pes, les resultats ont rapport aux 
originals. causes, et les copies aux origi- 

naux. 
Human actions are either good or Les actions humaines sont bonnes 
bad, according to the relation ou mauvaises, selon le rapport 
they have to a good or a bad end. qu'elles ont a une bonne ou mau- 

vaise fin. 

1544. Avoir rapport avec. 

A thing a rapport avec another, when it is similar, conform- 
able, or proportionate to it ; as, 



PREPOSITION. 



429 



In paintings, a copy resembles the 
original if it is similar to it, if it 
represents the same lines ; and 
although imperfect, it always has 
some relation to it. 

The Italian language resembles 
much the Latin. 



En fait de peinture, une copie a 
rapport avec l'original, si elle lui 
ressemble, si elle en retrace touts 
les traits ; et bien qu'imparfaite, 
elle ne laisse pas d'avoir rapport 
a P original. 

L'ltalien a un grand rapport avec 
le Latin. 



1545. Au tr avers de, a, tr avers. 

These two expressions differ not only as to their regimen, 
but also as to their signification. 

Au travers, through, designates a passage through an obsta- 
cle, and is always followed by the preposition de, of; as, 

1546. Au travers de. 

We see the light of the day Nous voyons la lumiere du jour 

through the curtains. au travers des rideaux. 

The soldiers rushed to the batal- Les soldats se precipiterent au tra- 

lions of the enemy, and broke vers des bataillons ennemis et les 

through them. enfoncerent 

A needle passes through the skin L'aiguille passe au travers de la 

which it pierces. peau qu'elle perce. 

1547. A travers. 

A travers, through, designates a passage through a place 
which presents no obstacle ; as, 

We could see the sun only through On ne voyait le soleil qu'a travers 

the clouds. les nuages. 

A spy passes lightly through the Un espion passe legerement h tra- 

camp of the enemy and flies off. vers le camp ennemi et se 

sauve. 

The hair of a goat passes the eye Le poil de chevre passe a travers 

of a needle. l'aiguille qui est percee. 



1548. Pres and A upres. 

The prepositions pres and aupres, near, should not be em- 
ployed indifferently, one for the other. 

1549. Pres. 

Pres implies only an idea of proximity, whereas, aupres 

means rather around, and implies assiduity. Thus we say : 

Come near me. Venez pres de moi. 

Woe to those who live near the Malheur a ceux qui vivent prfa du 

throne. trone. 

Hephaestion was always near Alex- Ephestion etait toujours pres eTA- 

ander. lexandre. 



430 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

1550. Aupres. 

This young- child is always about Ce jeune enfant est toujours au- 

his mother. pres de sa mere. 

Kings have always around them Les rois ont toujours auprte <f eux 

corrupted flatterers. des flatteurs corrompus. 

My dear children, remain close to Mes chers enfants, restez auprks 

me and forsake me not, but when de moi, et ne m'abandonnez que 

I shall be no more. quand je ne serai plus. 

1551. Vis-a-vis used for envers, a Vegard de, avec. 

What can be more incorrect than to employ, as is constantly 

done, the preposition vis-a-vis, opposite, instead of envers, a 

Vegard, avec, towards. Thus, take care not to say : 

He has been ungrateful towards II s'est montre ingrat vis-a-vis de 
me. moi. 

We must say : envers moi, or a mon egard. 

He was proud and impudent to- II etait fier et insolent vis-a-vis de 
wards his inferiors. ses inferieurs. 

It should be envers, a Vegard de, avec, ses inferieurs. 

1552. Vers for envers. 

Poets sometimes, for the accommodation of the rhyme, use 
vers for envers, towards ; it is a fault which must be avoided in 
prose, because these two words have quite a different significa- 
tion ; vers is employed to indicate a direction towards a place, 
or an epoch, whereas envers is only used when speaking of 
persons, as in the above examples. Thus we say : 

He has gone towards New York. II est alle vers New York. 

The weather-cock is turned to- La girouette est tournee vers le 

wards the north. nord. 

This fact took place about the year Ce fait est arrive vers l'annee 1783. 

1783. 

1553. Parmi, among. 

Parmi, among, should only be used, when followed by a noun 
in the plural, the plural implying many, or before a collective 
noun in the singular, when this noun may easily be divided 
into parts by the mind. Thus we say : 

Among us. Parmi nous. 

Among men. Parmi les hommes. 

Among our twenty comrades. Parmi nos vingt camarades. 



PREPOSITION. 431 

Among the people. Parmi le peuple. 

Among all that. Parmi tout cela. 

Among the fires. Parmi lesfeux. 

But we do not say : 

Among this pleasure, Parmi ce plaisir, 

Among glory, Parmi la gloire, 

Among us two, Parmi nous deux, 

Among our three comrades, Parmi nos trois camarades, 

Among my brother and sister, Parmi mon fr£re et ma sceur, 

because plaisir and gloire are but one, because the numbers 
two and three are too small ; we must, in these cases, use 

1554. Entre, au milieu. 

Entre, between, when the number is small, and au milieu, 
in the midst, before a singular noun, and say : 

Entre nous deux. 

JEntre mon frere et ma sosur. 

Entre nos deux ou trois camarades. 

Au milieu du plaisir. 

Au milieu de la gloire, &c. 

1555. Sept a huit, sept a huit cents. 

Although, in some measure, consecrated by usage, we must 
not say : 

We were seven or eight guests. Nous etions sept a huit convives. 

There were in the assembly five or II y eut dans l'assemblee cinq a six 
six dissident members. membres dissidents. 

Whereas, on the contrary, we may say with propriety : 

They were about seven or eight Us etaient sept a huit cents hommes. 

hundred men. 

We count five or six leagues from Nous comptons cinq a six lieues de 

this place to Boston. cette ville a Boston. 

Why this ? Because between seven and eight hundred 
men there is a possibility of division, because there are real 
intervals between five or six leagues, and in these cases we 
understand that there were from seven to eight hundred men 
present, that the distance was from four to five leagues ; but 
between seven and eight guests, between four and five mem- 
bers, there is no possibility of division ; then we must say : 

Nous etions sept ou huit convives. 
11 y avait cinq ou six membres, &c. 



432 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

1556. Durante during. 

Durante during, is used only as a preposition or a present 
participle, but never as an adjective, and takes neither number 
nor gender ; it is, then, a great fault to write : 

I have rented this house ; I will J'ai loue cette maison ; je la garde- 
keep it during my lifetime. rai ma vie durante. 

We must say : 

Je la garderai ma vie durant, or durant ma vie, or pendant ma vie. 
They will enjoy this property during lis jouiront de ce domaine six an- 
six years. nees durant, or pendant six an- 

nees, and not, six annees durantes. 

1557. Avoir vu sur le journal. 
We often hear people say : 

1 have seen this in the newspaper. J'ai vu ceci sur le journal. 

I read in the gazette the anecdote J'ai vu sur la gazette l'anecdote 

which they have told you. qu'on vous a racontee. 

I have read this article of agree- J'ai lu cette clause sur votre contrat 

ment in your marriage contract. de mariage. 

These erroneous expressions arise from mistaking one word 
for another ; we place a thing on the table, nous plagons une 
chose sur la table, we write on paper, nous ecrivons sur le 
papier, but we read in a book, dans un livre, in a register, 
dans un registre ; therefore the preposition dans, in, ought to 
be substituted for sur, in the above phrases : as follows, 

J'ai vu ceci dans un journal. 
J'ai vu dans la gazette, &c. 



1558. Void, voila. 

Void, here is, voila, there is, should not be used the one 
for the other ; void serves to designate an object which is 
near, voila designates an object which is more or less removed 
from the person who speaks : as, 

Here is the book you call for, take Void le livre que vous demandez, 

it. prenez le. 

I see at a distance the house you are Je vois de loin la maison dont vous 

speaking of, there it is on the top parlez ; la voila la has sur le som- 

of the hill. met de la colline. 

Void and voila are also said of things which have no real 



PREPOSITION. 433 

existence. When we are about to express a cause, a proof, 
a motive, we use voici ; when we have expressed it, we use 
voild ; as, 

Here is what has kept him at home ; Void, ce qui peut le retenir chez 

for the last ten days he has had lui ; depuis dix jours il a une 

an intermittent fever. fievre intermittente. 

Rectitude of heart, truth, innocence, La droiture du coeur, la virile, Vinno- 

correct principles, and an empire cence,^ les principes honnctes, et 

over the passions, such is true Vempire sur les passions, voila la 

grandeur, and the only ' glory veritable grandeur, et la seule 

against which no one can dispute. gloire que personne ne puisse 

contester. 

The prepositions void, voild, are formed of the imperative 
of the verb voir, to see, and the adverbs d, for id, here, and 
Id, there, and mean, look here, look there ; thus, nous voild, 
here we are, means, see us there, vois nous la ; me void, 
means vois moi id, see me here ; it results from this etymology 
that we must say : 

Here he is coming, Le voici qui vient, and not, Le voici 

qu'il vient, 
There they are coming in, Les voila qui entrent, and not, Les 

voila quHls entrent, 

because these phrases signify : 

Vois ici lui qui vient. 
Vois la lui qui entre. 

Thus, il placed before the verbs vient and entre, would give 
two nominatives, qui and il, to the same verb, which is against 
the genius of the language. 

Although voici and voild ought not to be employed one for 
the other, it is permitted to use voild^ in order to give more 
strength, more animation, to the language, even when we may 
think more of the effect produced by the action than of the 
action itself, and the subject may be near and relate to a fact 
in the present : as, 

Here thou art, then, Oh, my dear Te voila, done, Oh, mon fils ! et le 
son ! and Heaven permits that Ciel permet enfin que tu me sois 
thou art restored to me ! rendu. 

Du cote du levant bientot Bourbon s'avance, 
Le voila qui s'approche, et la mort le devance. 

1559. Jhant, devant. 

Avant and devant, before, have a different signification in 
37 



434 • FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

French ; avant refers to time and order, and shows a priority, 
it is used in opposition to after ; devant refers to place alone, 
and is used in opposition to behind ; as, 

1560. Avant, referring to time. 

It is beneficial to the mind to study II est avantageux pour l'esprit de 
before the morning meal. se livrer a l'etude avant le repas 

du matin. 

1561. Avant, referring to order. 

We must study the history of Greece II faut etudier l'histoire de la Grece, 
before the revolutions of the Ro- avant les revolutions Romaines. 
mans. 

1562. Devant, meaning in front. 

The victim, decorated with sacred La victime, ornee de bandelettes 
bands, was placed in front of the sacrees, etait placee devant l'au- 
altar. tel. 

1563. Devant, in opposition to behind. 

The order of nobility marched, in L'ordre de la noblesse marchait, a 
the procession, before the third la procession, devant celui du 
estate. tiers-etat. 

1564. Devant, meaning in presence of. 

Devant also signifies en presence de, in the presence of, or 
opposite to. 

We shall appear, some day, before Nous paraitrons un jour devant le 
the great judge of nations. grand juge des nations. 

1565. devant, opposite. 

I have opposite my windows a J 'ai devant mes fenetres une prairie 
prairie enamelled with flowers, emaillee de fleurs. 

1566. Avant, adverb, meaning far, beyond, with the 
adverbs more, less, so, much, too much. 

Remark. The adverb avant, signifying far, beyond, may 
be preceded by the adverbs plus, more, moins, less, si, so, 
bien, much, trop, too much : as, 

I shall not go farther. Je n'irai pas j9?ms avant. 

He has not gone so far. II est alle moins avant. 

They had gone so far, that they had Us avaient ete si avant, qu'il leur 

to conquer or die. fallait vaincre ou mourir.^ 

The dirk had penetrated very deep Le poignard avait penetre bien avant 

in the breast. dans la poitrine. 

You go too far, gentlemen. Vous allez trop avant, messieurs. 



PREPOSITION. 



435 



su 



1567. Tout a coup, tout d'un coup. 

We must not mistake the two expressions, tout a coup, 
^jddenly, and tout oVun coup, all at once ; the first expresses, 
that a fact happened suddenly, in an abrupt manner, the other, 
that a fact took place all at once, without interruption ; 

1568. Tout a coup. 

A dreadful tempest burst suddenly, 
and the waves were near swal- 
lowing our vessel. 

He suddenly rushed at his enemy 
and threw him on the ground. 

1569. Tout frun coup. 

Two successions have come to them 
all at once. 

I cannot grant you my whole con- 
fidence all at once. 

The great day of judgment will 
come suddenly, and the dead, 
leaving their tombs, will be 
judged, all at once, by the 
creator of the world. 



as 



Une tempete terrible s'eleva tout a 
coup, et les vagues faillirent nous 
engloutir. 

II s'elan£a tout a coup sur son en- 
nemi et le terrassa. 



Deux successions leur sont venues 
tout d'un coup. 

Je ne peux tout oVun coup vous 
accorder ma confiance. 

Le grand jour du jugement viendra 
tout-a-coup, et les morts, sor- 
tant de leurs tombeaux, seront 
tout d'un coup juges par le crea- 
teur du monde. 



1570. Aupres de, au prix de, in comparison with. 

The two expressions, aupres de, au prix de, in comparison 
with, are used indifferently by many good writers : as, 

The earth is but one grain of sand La terre n'est qu'un point aupres 

in comparison with the whole du monde entier. 
universe. 

All the works of man are common Tous les ouvrages de l'homme sont 

and rough in comparison withth e vils et grossiers auprds des moin- 

lesser works of nature. dres ouvrages de la nature. 

Interest is nothing in comparison L'interSt n'est rien au prix du de- 

with duty. voir. 

What is this life, alas ! in compari- Qu'est cette vie, helas ! au prix de 

son to eternity. l'eternite ? 

1571. En, dans, in. 

The prepositions en, dans, in, although apparently synony- 
mous, differ in their signification ; dans is used in a sense 
fixed and particularized ; en is employed in a sense vague, 
general, and indefinite. As the proper use of these two 
words is one of the greatest difficulties in the language, we will 
treat of them at some length. 



436 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



Examples. 



SENSE DEFINITE, FIXED, PAR- 
TICULARIZED. 

He lives in Normandy. 

II demeure dans la Normandie. 

They dwell in Paris, 
lis logent dans Paris. 

It is dear to live in foreign coun- 
tries. 

II fait cher a vivre dans les pays 
etrangers. 

He is in his room. 

II est dans sa chambre. 

They are in the cells, 
lis sont dans les cachots. 

We live inside of the Sorbonne. 
Nous logeons dans la Sorbonne. 

He is in a boarding school. 
II est dans une pension. 

At the same time I received news 

from my family. 
Dans le meme temps, je recus des 

nouvelles de ma famille. 

When in a passion, a man is igno- 
rant of his deeds. 

Dans la colere, le homme ne sait ce 
qu'il fait. 

His body has been found among 

the ruins. 
On a trouve son corps dans les cen- 

dres. 

This man has sorrows. 

Cet homme est dans la peine. 



SENSE VAGUE, GENERAL, IN- 
DEFINITE. 

He lives in the provinces. 
II vit en province. 

They have arrived in France, 
lis sont arrives en France. 

It is in foreign countries that we 

shall travel. 
C'est en pays etranger que nous 

voyagerons. 

He occupies a furnished room. 
II vit en chambre garnie. 

They are in jail, 
lis sont en prison. 

We have studied at the Sorbonne. 
Nous avons etudie en Sorbonne. 

It is at school. 
II est en pension. 

Come both together. 

Venez touts deux en meme temps. 

I saw them often in a passion. 
Je les ai vus souvent en colore. 



Wood, by burning, is reduced to 

ashes. 
Le bois, en brulant, se reduit en 

cendres. 

This man is in trouble. 
Cet homme est en peine. 



1572. En, loith a Noun qualified by an Adjective. 

Remark. Whenever the noun, used in a vague sense, is fol- 
lowed by an adjective or other qualification, it must in most 
cases be preceded by dans, instead of en ; we should not say, 
then : 

He sleeps in a dark cell, II couche en prison obscure, 

He lives in a province which is II vit en province qui nous est ires 
much known to us, connue, 



but, 



II couche dans une prison obscure. 

II vit dans une province qui nous est tres connue. 



PREPOSITION. 437 

1573. En before lequel. 

En rejects the pronoun lequel and the plural article les ; 

thus, we cannot say : 

Money is the object in which a mi- L'argent est Pobjet en lequel (but 
ser concentrates all his enjoy- dans lequel) l'avare concentre 
ments. toutes ses jouissances. 

1574. En before the plural article. 

Neither can we say : 

In men. En les hommes. 

In foreign countries. En les pays etrangers. 

In all the inhabitants. En touts les habitants. 

In the places. En les lieux. 

We should say : 

Dans les hommes. 
Dans les pays etrangers. 
Dans touts les habitants. 
Dans les lieux, &c. 

1575. En, with the singular Article definite. 

En admits of the singular definite article only in expressions 
similar to the following : 

In honor, in the presence, in the ab- En l'honneur, en la presence, en 

sence, of our friends. l'absence de nos amis. 

This suit has been decided in the Ce proces a ete decide en la grande 

great hall. chambre. 

These disasters happened in the Ces malheurs sont arrives en Pan 

year 1793. 1793. 

Let us hope in the mercy of the Al- Esperons en la misericorde du 

mighty. Seigneur. 

But do not say : 

In peace, in war, in prosperity, Enla. paix, en la guerre, en la pros- 

per ite, 

but, 

Dans la paix, dans la guerre, dans la prosper ite. 

In the pleasant season, En la belle saison, 

In the person of the king, En la personne du roi, 

but, 

Dans la belle saison. 
Dans la personne du roi. 

In the dreadful situation we are in. (Not en, but) dans 1'horrible situa- 
tion ou nous sommes. 

In the forlorn state which we are in. (Not en, but) dans l'etat d'abandon 

oU l'on nous a laisses. 
37* 



438 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

1576. Au, used instead of en, or dans. 

We cannot say : 

He has fallen into the hands of his II est tombe en or dans les (but aux) 
enemies. mains de ses ennemis. 

1577. En, dans, applied to time. 

Dans serves to designate the time when a fact is to take 
place ; en expresses how long it will take a fact to be accom- 
plished ; thus, if I mean to say that I will begin a journey in two 
months, I say : 

I shall begin my journey in two Je ferai mon voyage dans deux 
months ; mois ; 

but, if I wish to express that my journey will last two months, 

I say : 

I will accomplish my journey in two Je ferai mon voyage en deux mois. 
months. 

If I say, for : 
It will take him three days to come, II arrivera en trois jours, 

I say, for : 

He will be here in three days. II arrivera dans trois jours. 

1578. En compared with a and dans. 

We must say, for : 

He is in jail, II est en prison, or a la prison, or 

dans la prison. 

If we speak of a man who is kept in jail, we say : 

II est en prison ; 

but, if we mean only that a person has been to visit the jail as 
he would visit a church, then we use a ; as, 
II est a la prison. 

And if, in fine, we wish to express that a person is inside of a 
jail, either as a prisoner or a visitor, we say : 
II est dans la prison. 

1579. A, used for en or dans. 
It would be a fault to say : 



PREPOSITION. 439 

He died at the age of sixty. II mourut en or dans Page de soi- 

xante ans. 
We have sung songs in honor of Nous avons chante des psaumes 

God. dans or en la louange de Dieu. 

He has composed a poem in honor II a fait un poeme en or dans la 

of the glory of Charlemagne. gloire de Charlemagne. 

We must say : 

II mourut a Page de soixante ans. 

Nous avons chante des psaumes a la lounage de Dieu. 

II a fait un poeme a la gloire de Charlemagne. 



1580. En, dans, a, with ville and campagne* 

When we say of a person : 

He is in town, 11 est en ville, 

we mean to say, that he is not at home. 
If we say : 

II est dans la ville, 

we express that he is not out of the city. 
And if we say : 

II est a la ville, 

we express that he is not in the country. 

If we wish to say that a person has left the city on an expe- 
dition of some length, we say : 

II est en campagne. 

If we wish to say that a person is at work neither at home 
nor in the city, we say : 

II travaille dans la campagne. 

If, in fine, we mean that a person has left the city for the 
country, we say : 

II est a la campagne. 

1581. Remarks. 

Speaking of the army opening a campaign, we say : 

L'armee est entree en campagne. 

We also say of a man who set out to discover something im- 
portant to him : 

II s'est mis en campagne. 



440 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

1582. A, used instead of en and dans, before names of cities. 

Instead of en, dans, in, we use the preposition a before 
names of cities or countries which require the use of the article 
before them, when we speak of them as places of residence, 
station, voyage, or arrival ; as, 

He lives, he has stopped, he is II demeure, il s'est arrete, il est ne, 

born, he died in Boston, in New il estmort a Boston, a. New York, 

York, in New Orleans, &c. d la Nouvelle Orleans, &c. 

Next summer, we shall go to Balti- L'ete prochain, nous irons d Balti- 
more, to the Canary Islands, to more, aux lies Canaries, a Na- 
Naples, to Paris, &c. pies, a Paris, &c. 

We have arrived at Lyons, Bor- Nous sommes arrives a Lyon, a 

deaux, &c. Bordeaux, &c. 

1583. Pour, instead, of a. 

But, if we wish to express that a person sets out for any 
place, the preposition pour, for, is used instead of a, to ; as, 

He set out for Spain, America, II est parti pour l'Espagne, pour 
France, &c. l'Amerique, pour la France. 

1584. En, used idiomatically with some Verbs, and changing 
their meaning. 

En is used idiomatically with a great number of verbs, and 
changes their signification ; as, 

He is ill-disposed towards his II enveut a ses juges. 

judges. 

Whom do you wish to speak to ? A qui en voulez-vous ? 

Against whom do you feel angry ? A qui en avez-wows ? 

After quarrelling some time, they Apres s'etre querelles quelque terns, 

came to hard words and fighting. ils en vinrent aux injures, puis 

aux coups. 

After beating me, they did not stop Apres m'avoir battu, ils ne s'ew. tin- 

there, and I did not know what to rent pas la, et je ne savais a quoi 

think of their intentions. m'en tenir sur leurs intentions. 

We have lost our case, but we shall Nous avons perdu notre proces, 

not stop there. mais nous vCen demeurerons pas la. 

When we are miserable by our own Quand on est malheureux par sa 

fault, we are wrong to accuse oth- faute, on a tort de s'en prendre 

ers of our misfortune. aux autres. 



1585. En, used expletively in many cases. 
En is merely expletive in the following phrases : 

We have acted towards you as you Nous ne sommes pas en reste avec 
did towards us. vous. 



PREPOSITION. 



441 



What do you pretend to show ? 
I did not expect less from you. 
It is with this as with almost every 

thing in the world. 
It shall not be so. 

You will dine all the better for that. 
There is nothing in it. 
Nature has been generous to you. 
Why do you use me ill ? 

Learned men are just the same. 
We must not accuse the whole 

world. 
He lies in all he says. 
They came to blows at the break of 

day. 
I beg you, let us not go any further. 



Ou voulez-vous en venir ? 

Je n'en attendais pas moins devous. 

H en est de ceci comme de la plu- 

part des choses de ce monde. 
II n'en sera pas ainsi. 
Vous n'en dinerez que mieux. 
II vCen est rien. 

La nature en a bien use avec vous. 
Pourquoi en usez-vous mal avec 

moi? 
II en est de meme des savants. 
II ne faut pas s'en prendre a tout le 

monde. 
II en impose dans tout ce qu'il dit. 
Us en vinrent aux mains a la pointe 

du jour. 
Restons en la je vous en supplie. 



1586. En user, and not en agir, bien ou mal. 

Although we may say : 

To act right or wrong with some- En user bien ou mal avec quelqu'un, 
body, 

we should not say : 

En agir bien ou mal avec quelqu'un. 

1587. Dans, sometimes improperly used instead of pour, for. 

Lawers have introduced an expression which, being, contrary 
to the philosophy of the language, should be avoided ; they 
say : 

I think that, for the interest of the Je crois que efans l'interet (instead of 
parties, the case ought to be post- pour i'inter6t) des parties la 
poned a week ; it is for your in- cause doit &tre remise a huitaine ; 
terest alone that I have requested c'est dans vos interets seuls (in- 
and obtained this adjournment. stead of pour vos interets) que 

j'ai demande et obtenu cet ajour- 
nement. 



1588. A tout autre que vous, and not a tout autre qu'k vous. 

This mode of speaking is extremely defective. Nothing is 

more common than to hear the following expression : 

I would not say this to anybody Je ne voudrais pas dire cela a tout 
else. autre qu^ vous. 

But by analyzing the sentence, we easily discover the fault of 
its construction, which consists in repeating, without necessity, 
the preposition a, to ; for the meaning is : 



442 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Je ne voudrais pas dire cela a une personne toute autre que vous n' etes, 
or 
Une personne toute autre que vous n'etes s'offenserait de ce langage. 

And in these two modes of construction, we find that tout autre 
only, is governed by the verb dire, and consequently is the only 
indirect object under the control of the preposition a, to ; we 
should say, then : 

Je ne voudrais pas dire cela a tout autre que vous. 

By the same analogy, we say : 

I would accept the sum which I J'accepterais la somme dont j'ai be- 
want from anybody else. soin de tout autre que lui (and not 

de tout autre que de lui). 

1589. When must a Noun, preceded by de, be used in the Sin- 
gular or in the Plural Number 1 

In order to ascertain what is the number required by a noun 
preceded by de, of, we must examine what is the meaning of 
the sentence, and place the noun in the singular or plural num- 
ber according to it. When we say : 

This artist is full of talent, Cet artiste est rempli de talent, 

talent must be used in the singular, because we mean only 
that the artist has a great talent in his line ; but in the follow- 
ing : 

This young lady is very talented, Cette jeune personne est remplie de 

talents, 

talents must be in the plural, because we wish to express 
that her education has been such as to render her distinguished 
in different branches, as music, draioing, languages, &c. ; we, 
in reality, speak here of several talents ; whereas, in the pre- 
ceding example we speak only of one ; hence the difference in 
the numbers ; for the same reason we write in the singular : 
This head is full of grace, Cette tete est pleine de grace, 

and in the plural : 

This woman is very graceful. Cette femme est remplie de graces. 

In the singular : 
This old man lives on milk, Ce vieillard se nourrit de lait, 



PREPOSITION. 443 



and in the plural : 

These young people love to live on Ces jeune gens aiment a se nourrir 
fruits. de fruits. 

What we have just said of the preposition de, of, is appli- 
cable to the following, a, to, en, in, sans, without, avec, with ; 
thus we write in the singular : 

We travel on foot. Nous voyageons a pied. 

I have a safe with a secret lock. J'ai un cofFre a secret. 

I have bought some bureaus to keep J'ai achete des arraoires a linge. 

my linen. 
We are without money, without a Nous sommes sans argent, sans ami. 

friend. 
They have come with cane and Us sont venus avec canne et baton. 

stick. 

And in the plural : 

I have a bed which goes upon cas- J'ai un lit a roulettes. 

tors. 

He leaps with his feet close. II saute a pieds joints. 

Run from this horned beast. Fuyez cette bete a comes. 

The enemy has been cut to pieces. L'ennemi a ete taille en ptices. 

He goes without shoes. U march e sans souliers. 

The soldiers will start with their Les soldats partiront avec armes et 

arms and baggage. bagages. 

1590. An Infinitive, preceded by a, to, represents a 
passive idea. 

An infinitive, when preceded by the preposition a } to, is 
equivalent to an infinitive in the passive form ; as, 

This fruit is good to eat. Ce fruit est bon d manger (a. etre 

mange). 

Therefore we cannot use in this manner verbs which, being 
intransitive, have no direct regimen ; because these verbs 
cannot assume the passive form ; we do not say, then : 

This abuse would be easily reme, Cet abus est facile a remedier, 
died, 

but, 

II seroit facile de remedier a cet abus, 

remedier being a neuter verb which has no passive form. 

Nor do we say : 

These people are unpleasant to live Ces gens la sont difficiles a vivre, 
with, 

but, 



II est difficile de vivre avec ces gens la. 



444 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Nor : 

These children are not to be de- Ces enfants ne sont pas & desespe"- 
spaired of, rer, 

but, 

II ne faut pas desesperer de ces enfants. 

1591. Faire, followed by an infinitive, cannot be preceded 
by a, to. 

For the same reason, the verb faire, followed by an infini- 
tive, cannot be preceded by the preposition a, to ; we do not 
say, then : 
They were hard to kill, lis furent difficiles a faire mourir, 

but, 

II fut difficile de les faire mourir, 

because etre fait mourir is not French, mourir being a neuter 

verb. 

Nor : 

These large stones will not be easy Ces grosses pierres ne seront pas 
to pull down, faciles a faire tomber, 

but, 

II ne sera pas facile de faire tomber ces grosses pierres. 

1592. Jouer a. 

The verb jouer , to play, governs the preposition a, to, 
when speaking of any sort of game : as, 

To play whist. Jouer au whist. 

To play billiards. Jouer au billard. 

1593. Jouer de. 

But when speaking of instruments, it governs the preposition 

de, of : as, 

To play on the flute. Jouer de la flute. 

To play on the harp. Jouer de la harpe. 

1594. De, used as an adverbial expression. 

De is used in a great number of adverbial expressions in- 
stead of pendant, durant, avec, &c. : as, 

He sees by night like a cat. II voit de nuit comme un chat. 

We shall arrive there in the day- Nous y arriverons de jour. 
time. 



PREPOSITION. 445 

He ran with all his might. II courut de toutes ses forces. 

He did this with good grace. II fit cela de bonne grdce. 

He behaves in that manner. II se conduit de cette maniere. 

We live on fish. Nous vivons de poisson, &c. 

1595. A before nouns employed to designate the use of a 
preceding noun. 

A, to, is sometimes employed before nouns in order to 
designate either the use of a preceding noun, the material 
of which a thing is made, or some characteristics by which a 
person or a thing may be recognized : as, 

Here is the windmill. Voici le moulin a vent. 

Give me the pitcher. Donnez-moi le pot a Veau. 

An arm-chair. Une chaise a bras. 

A bread-basket. Une corbeille a pain. 

Have you any gunpowder ? Avez-vous de la poudre a canon. * 

Stockings with three threads. Des bas a, trois Jils. 

The man with the red waistcoat. L'homme au gilet rouge. 

1596. A, used to denote the period or succession of time or 
action. 

A is also used to denote a period of time or action : as, 

We rise at six o'clock, at sunrise. Nous nous levons a six heures, au 

lever du soldi . 
We will arrive in time, at sunset. Nous arriverons a terns, au coucher 

du soleil. 

1597. A, used to denote circumstances of events and actions. 

A is also used to denote circumstances of events and ac- 
tions ; as, 

He has a pain in his head. II a mal d, la tite. 

Cloth at eighteen shillings a yard, Da drap a dix-huit shellings 1'aune, 

at a cheap rate. a bon marche". 

He sells candles by the dozen, wine II vend des chandelles a la douzaine, 

by the pint, &c. du vin a lapinte. 

She works at her needle. Elle travaille a Vaiguille. 

I ride on horseback. Je monte a cheval. 

She dresses in the French fashion. Elle s'habille a la Frangaise. 

1598. A, used to denote possession , office, duty, fyc. 

A is also used to denote possession, office, duty, &c. : as, 

Whose penknife is this ? It is mine. A qui est ce canif ? II est a moi. 
It is your part to obey me. C'est a vous de m'obeir. 

It is your turn to play. C'est a vous a jouer. 

38 



446 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

1599. Remark on the employment of a and de, meaning 
turn, or right, or duty. 

When we wish to express an idea of turn or order, the 
preposition a is used before the verb expressing the action to 
be performed ; when, on the contrary, we wish to convey the 
idea of right or duty, de is employed instead of a : as, 

f C'est a vous a jouer (I remember 

Tt . , J the player, that he has to play). 

It is your turn to play. 1 c?est £ ^ de ;W (J ^ ^ 

[_ that he has the right to play). 
It is for you to-day to go and see C'est a vous aujourd'hui a alter voir 
our father. notre pere (meaning that it is 

your turn this time). 
It is for you to go and see our C'est a vous d'aller voir notre pere, 
father, and apologize for your et de /aire des excuses pour votre 
ceglect. negligence. 



OF ADVERBS. 



1600. Adverbs are words, invariable by their nature, which 
are placed after other words, to modify the idea expressed by 
these words, and, generally, after verbs or adjectives, so as to 
give more precision to the action, the state, the quality, ex- 
pressed by these verbs or adjectives. When we say : 

These children behave wisely, pru- Ces enfants se conduisent sagement, 
dently, &c. prudemment, &c. 

the words sagement, prudemment, are adverbs ; they modify 
the action expressed by the verb se conduire, to behave ; they 
express with more precision the manner, the way, in which 
these children behave. If we suppress the adverbs, the idea 
would be incomplete, vague ; we could not know if the chil- 
dren behaved right or wrong, wisely or prudently. 

1601. These words are called adverbs from the two Latin 
words, ad and verbum, near a word, because they modify, 
restrict, or determine, the sense of the word after which they 
are placed. 

1602. These words can modify but a quality which is sus- 
ceptible of being increased or diminished ; thus, when we say, 



ADVERB. 447 

the adverb modifies a verb, we understand that it modifies the 
quality, the situation, the action, expressed by the verb. In 
this phrase : 

Peter sleeps soundly, Pierre dort prof bndiment, 

the adverb profondement modifies the situation of being asleep, 
which is expressed by the verb to sleep, which Peter affirms. 

1603. Adverbs are abridged expressions, which represent 
a preposition with its complement ; for instance, sagement, 
wisely, signifies avec sagesse, with wisdom ; thus any word 
which may be thus rendered by a preposition and a noun, is 
an adverb. 

1604. Adverbs, as well as prepositions, take neither gender 
nor number. These two kinds of words resemble each other, 
at least in appearance ; but they differ in this, that the prepo- 
sition is always followed by an object, expressed or under- 
stood, whilst the adverb has no object. 

Thus the adverb has a complete sense of itself, whereas 
the preposition has no signification without its object. 
When I say : 

He has behaved with, by, without, II s'est conduit avec, par, sans, &c. 
&c. 

the mind is waiting for something else, which is the comple- 
ment of this vague expression ; but when I say : 

He has behaved prudently, II s'est conduit prudemment, 

the mind is satisfied, the idea is complete. 

1605. As, in many cases, the same words are employed as 
adverbs or prepositions, it is only when they express an idea 
by themselves that we may call them adverbs ; a few exam- 
ples will illustrate this difference : 

Prepositions. Adverbs. 

He has arrived before the others. Do not go so far. 

II est arrive avant les autres. N'allez pas si avant. 

I have looked in vain upon the bed Look upon the table ; search upon 

and under it. and under it. 

J'ai cherche en vain dessus et des- Voyez sur la table ; regardez dessus 

sous le lit. et dessous. 

This fact took place out of the city. He is out. 

Ce fait s'est passe dehors la ville. II est dehors. 



448 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

They were running away without What is the difference, whether we 

looking behind them. place this button before or behind ? 

[Is fuyaient sans regarder derrUre Qu'importe, que ce bouton soit mis 

eux. devant ou derrilre. 

There are grammarians who object to the words in the right- 
hand column being called adverbs ; they look upon them as 
prepositions used elliptically ; they may be right, but that is 
not important, since we treat here only of their form ; the 
Academy, in this case, calls them adverbs, and we will follow 
its example. 

1606. We have said, that, in French, words often change 
their nature ; the adverbs give us some examples to prove this 
fact. 

1st. Some adjectives become adverbs, when, having no 

antecedent, no noun to correspond with them, they lose their 

modifying character, and are joined to a verb only to qualify 

it, or express a circumstance of its signification : as, 

He smells good. II sent bon. 

He sings correctly, false. II chante juste, faux. 

She is fainting. Elle se trouve mal. 

They cannot see clear. lis ne voyent pas clair. 

She smells bad. Elle sent mauvais. 

He stops short. II reste court. 

These words, bon, juste, faux, mal, clair, mauvais, and 
court, are real adverbs in these sentences. 

1607. 2d. There are also adverbs which, on some occa- 
sions, become real substantives, taking the article and the num- 
bers ; as, devant, fore part, derriere, back part, dessus, the 
top, dessous, the under part, dedans, the inside, de hors, the 
outside. Thus we say : 

The outside of the door. Le devant de la porte. 

To take the lead. Prendre les devants. 

To be independent of one's busi- Etre au dessus de ses affaires. 

ness. 
To be beaten in a fight. Avoir le dessous dans une affaire. 

The inside, the back part of a Le dedans, le derrie'red'une maison. 

house. 
The outer part of the city. Les dehors de la ville. 

1608. Although we have said that adverbs are never fol- 
lowed by an object, we ought to except the few following, which 
express manner : as, dependamment, dependency, indepen- 
damment, independently, differemment, differently, which gov- 
ern the preposition de, of, and conv enablement, conveniently, 



ADVERB. 449 

conformement, conformably, prefer ablement, preferably, privi- 

tivement, privately, and relativement, relatively, which may be 

followed by the preposition a, to ; as, 

Kings ought to act differently from Les Rois doivent agir differcmment 

other individuals. des autres hommes. 

It is on your account. C'est relativement a vous. 

The reason for this rule is, that usage has given to these ad- 
verbs, the same prepositions which are governed by their ad- 
jectives. 



Of the different sorts of Adverbs. 

1609. We shall divide the adverbs, according to their signi- 
fication, into the following different classes : 

1st. Adverbs of negation. 

2d. " of affirmation. 

3d. " of doubt. 

4th. " of manner. 

5th. u of order or rank. 

6th. " of place. 

7th. " of distance. 

8th. " of time. 

9th. " of quantity. 

10th, " of comparison. 

1610. We will, in order to establish clearness in this classi- 
fication, subdivide these ten different sorts of adverbs into three 
large classes : 

The first will include the adverbs of negation, affirmation, 
and doubt. 

The second will include adverbs of manner. 

The third, all the rest. 

We range among the adverbs, the words which express af 
firmation, negation, or doubt, which, by many grammarians, 
are placed among the conjunctions, and by others are called 
particles, a word which signifies nothing. We think that 
names have no importance, provided we understand plainly 
their usage and signification. 

1611. First Class. 1st. Adverbs of affirmation ; they are 

38* 



450 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

the following : certes, certainly, out, yes, volontiers, willingly, 
soit, let it be so, &c. ; as, 

Since we must conquer or perish, Puisqu'il faut vaincre ou mourir, 

certainly we cannot hesitate. certes nous n'avons pas a hesiter. 

Yes, such is my name. Oui, tel est mon nom. 

Do you wish it? yes, no doubt, let Le voulez-vous? oui, soit, volun- 

it be so. tiers, &c. 

1612. 2d. Adverbs of doubt ; we have but one adverb of 

doubt, it is peut-etre, perhaps ; as, 

Paris is perhaps the city where Paris estpeut-etre la villedu monde 

people find the greatest variety ou l'on trouve la plus grande 

of amusements, but at the same variete dans les plaisirs, mais 

time it is perhaps the place where c'est peut-etre celle ou Ton ren- 

is found the greatest amount of contre le plus de mis&re. 
misery. 

Some grammarians class among the adverbs of doubt, prob- 
ablement, vraisemblablement, probably, but we shall put them 
with the adverbs of manner, on account of their termination in 
merit. 

1613. 3d. The adverbs of negation are the following: non, 
no ; ne, ne pas, pas, point, ne poi?it, not ; nullement, point du 
tout, not at all ; nutte part, nowhere ; as, 

Will you have some of that? No. En voulez-vous ? Non. 

Will you not have some of that ? JV'en voulez-vous pas ? Non. 

No. 
He does not know what to do. He II ne sait que faire. II n'ose. 

dare not 

We see already, that the negative ne is sometimes used with 
pas or point, sometimes not ; we shall hereafter explain the 
reason and circumstances of this fact, 

1614. Second Class of Adverbs. 

The adverbs of manner express how and in what manner 
things are done, facts take place. We have seen that these 
adverbs are composed of an adjective and a preposition ; they 
have been invented to abridge discourse ; sagement, wisely, 
is used for avec sagesse, with wisdom, modestement, modestly, 
for avec modestie, with modesty. The adverbs of this class 
which are formed from adjectives are terminated in ment, and 
follow in their formation the following rules : 

1615. When the adjective which forms the root of the ad- 
verb is terminated with a vowel, the adverb is made by adding 
ment to the adjective ; as, 



ADVERB. 451 

Modestly, modeste-ment. Truly, vrai-ment. 

Sensibly, sense-ment. Gayly, gai-raent 

Politely, poli-ment. Ingenuously, ingenu-ment. 

We must except, follement, foolishly, nouvellement, newly, 
mollement, softly, bellement, beautifully, which are formed from 
the feminine termination. 

1616. When the adjective is terminated in the masculine 
with a consonant, the adverb is formed by making the adjective 
feminine and adding merit ; as, 

Greatly, grand, grande-ment 

Frankly, franc, franche-ment. 

Happily, heureux, heureuse-ment. 

Sweetly, doux, douce-menc. 

Distinctly, distinct, distincte-ment 

Long, long, longue-ment 

Briefly, brief, brieve-ment. 

Freshly, frais, fraiche-ment. 

1617. We must except the adjective gentil, gentle, which 
makes its adverb gentiment. The formation of this adverb 
arises from the fact, that the letter I is not sounded in the 
adjective, and the adverb is written to suit the ear rather than 
to conform to the preceding rule. 

1618. Adjectives ending in ent, ant, form their adverbs by 
changing ent into emment, and ant into amment ; as, 



Eloquently, 


eloquent, 


eloquemment. 


Diligently, 


diligent, 


diligemment 


Constantly, 


constant, 


constamment. 


Obligingly, 


oblige ant, 


obligeamment. 



The adjectives lent, slow, and present, present, are the only 

ones of this class which follow the general rule ; as, 

Slow, lent, lente-ment. 

Present, present, presente-ment. 

1619. There are five adverbs terminating in ment, which are 

not derived from any adjective : they are : 

How, comment. Knowingly, sciemment. 

Incessantly, incessamment. Nightly, nuitamment 

Especially, notamment. 

1620. There are, besides, adverbs of manner, which do not 
end in ment ; such as : 

Vainly, en vain. Well, bien. 

On purpose, expres. Thus, ainsi, &c. 

Badly, mal. 



452 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



1621. The letter e, which precedes ment, in the adverbs of 
manner, is always mute, except in the following, when it takes 



an acute accent ; as 



Easily, 

Blindly, 

Commodiously, 

Communely, 

Conformably, 

Deliberately, 

Immeasurably, 



aisement. 

aveuglement. 

commodement. 

communement. 

conformement 

deliberement. 

demesurement. 



Desperately, 

Disordinately, 

Determinately, 

Impudently, 

Enormously, 

Expressly, 

Figuratively, 



desesperement. 

desordonnement. 

determinement. 

effrontement. 

enormement. 

expressement. 

figurement. 



1622. Many adverbs, and principally those expressing man- 
ner, admit of the three degrees of comparison, and in this re- 
spect follow the same rule as the adjectives. 

1623. We ought to except only those which relate to quali- 
ty and similarity, and some others ; as, 



Totally, 


totalement. 


On purpose, 


expres. 


Extremely, 


extremement. 


How, 


comment. 


Sufficiently, 


suffisamment. 


Incessantly. 


incessamment 


Thus, 


ainsi. 


Especially, 


notamment. 


Vainly, 


en vain. 


Nightly, 


nuitamment 



1624, The comparative and superlative are formed in the 
same manner, and with the same words as the adjectives. 
We say : 



Profoundly, 
As profoundly, 
More " 

Less " 

Very " 

The most " 



profondement. 
aussi profondement. 
plus " 

moins " 

tres « 

le plus " 



1625. Two adverbs alone make their comparative and su- 
perlative irregularly ; they are, lien, well, mal, badly. The 
first makes its comparative mieux, superlative le mieux, the 
second, pis, superlative le pis. 

1626. The adverbs of manner, whose functions are to mod- 
ify verbs and adjectives, are themselves modified by adverbs of 
quantity ; as, 

Un jeune homme sage ne dit rien 
sans avoir bien soigneusement ex- 
amine la valeur de ses paroles, 
et se conduit toujours si pru- 
demment que personne ne peut 
se plaindre de lui. 



A wise young man says nothing 
without having carefully exam- 
ined the meaning of his words, 
and always behaves so prudent- 
ly that no one can complain of 
him. 



ADVERB. 453 

1627. Third Class of Adverbs. 

The adverbs of order or rank, are those which express how- 
things are arranged with regard to one another. These adverbs 
can modify only the verbs, and cannot, in any way, be modified 
by other adverbs. They are the following : 
First, premierement, Secondly, secon clement, 

which are formed by adding ment to the feminine of the ordi- 
nal numbers, and, 

At first, d'abord. 

After, apres. 

Before, devant, avant, auparavant. 

Afterwards, then, ensuite, &c. 

as : 

Do first your translation, secondly, Faites premierement votre version, 

read the tenth ode of the first lisez secondement la dixieme 

book of Horace, and afterwards ode du premier livre d'Horace, 

pass to some other kind of amus- et passez ensuite a quelqu'autre 

ing reading. lecture d'agrement. 

First, the eye admires beauty, then Les yeux admirent (Pabord la 

the senses feel a desire for it, beaute, ensuite les sens la desi- 

the heart afterwards yields to it. rent, le coeur s'y livre aprbs. 

1628. Adverbs of place and distance are those which are 
employed to express distances and situations of places, in re- 
gard to the person who speaks, or to the objects which are 
spoken of. 

The adverbs of place are the following : 

Oil, where. Ici, here. La, there. 

Dega, this side. Dela, that side. En haut, on the top. 

En bas, at the base, Partout, everywhere. Autour, around. 

These adverbs have no comparative nor superlative : 

Venez ici, come here. Cherchez partout, look everywhere. 

Allez la, go there. 

1629. The adverbs of distance are : 

Pres, near. Loin, far. Proche, near, &c. 

These adverbs take the degrees of comparison ; thus we 
say : 

Come nearer. Venez plus pres. 

Go farther. Allez plus loin. 

We must be neither too near nor too II ne faut etre ni trop prhs ni trop 
far. loin. 

1630. Pres and loin may be followed by the preposition de y 



454 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

of, but then they lose their character of adverbs, and become 
prepositions. 

Near, he amuses us ; at a distance, Depres il nous amuse, et de loin nous 

he attracts us. invite. 

Near you, everything pleases me ; Pres de vous tout me plait, loin de 

far from you, everything makes vous tout m'attriste. 

me sorrowful. 

In the first sentence, pres and loin, preceded by de, keep 
their nature of adverbs ; but in the second, being followed by 
it, they become prepositions. 

1631. Adverbs of time are those which express some rela- 
tion of time ; there are two different kinds of them. 

Some designate time in a determinate manner. 

1632. They are, for the present time : 

Maintenant, now. A present, at present. 

Presentement, presently. Actuellement, actually, &c. 

For the past, they are : 

Hier, yesterday. Autrefois, formerly, &c. 

Avant hier, day before yesterday. 

For the future, they are : 

Demain, to-morrow. Bientot, soon. 

Desormais, hereafter. A 1'avenir, in the future. 

1633. The others designate time only in a vague and inde- 
terminate manner ; they are : 

Souvent, often. D'ordinaire, usually. 

Quelquefois, sometimes. Matin, early. 

Tot, soon. Incessamment, incessantly. 

Tard, late. 

1634. Among these adverbs, some take the degrees of com- 
parison ; as, 

Come more or less often. Venez plus ou moins souvent. 

Go there earlier. Allez y plus matin. 

Come sooner, as soon as possible. Venez moins tard, le plutdt possible. 

1635. Jamais, never, and toujours, always, are sometimes 

preceded, the former by the preposition a, the latter by the 

preposition pour, for ; as, 

Be happy forever. Soyez heureux a jamais, or pour 

toujours. 

1636. Adverbs of quantity are those which serve to desig- 
nate the quantity of things, or their value, or their comparison ; 
as, 



Assez, 


enough. 


Au moins, 


at least. 


Au plus, 


at the most 


Aussi, 


as. 


Autant, 


as much. 


Beaucoup, 


much. 


Bien, 


many. 


Davantage, 


more. 


Fort, 


very. 



RB. 




Moins, 
Peu, 


less, 
few, little. 


Plus, 

Presque, 

Si, 

Tant, 

Tres, 

Trop, 


more. 

nearly. 

so. 

so much. 

very. 

too much, &c. 



455 



1637. These adverbs may modify verbs, adjectives, and 
even adverbs of manner, besides some adverbs of place. 

Of this class, the following modify only adjectives, parti- 
ciples, and adverbs : 

Aussi, as. Tout, 

Quelque, whatever. Tres, 

Si, 



whatever, 
so. 



entirely, 
very. 



The following modify the verbs only : 



Au moins, 
Au plus, 



at least, 
at the most. 



Davantage, 
Du moins, 



more, 
at least. 



Tout a fait , entirely, modifies only the participles. 

1638. Adverbs of quantity are generally followed by the 
preposition de, of, because they are then used instead of a 
noun ; they may, for the same reason, be objects of a verb or 
a preposition ; then they are no longer adverbs, but nouns or 
prepositions. 

Plus and davantage, more, are not used indifferently, one for 
the other. Davantage is never followed by de, of, nor by the 
conjunction que, that ; we do not say : 

He is more brilliant than sound in Da davantage de brillant que de so- 

mind, lide, 

He trusts more to his own mind 11 se fie davantage a ses lumieres 

than to that of others, qu'a celles des autres, 

but, 

II a plus de brilliant que de solide. 

II se he plus a ses lumieres qu'a celles des autres. 

Davantage is properly used only at the end of sentences ; 

as, 

Science is valuable, but virtue is La science est estimable, mais la 
more so. vertu l'est davantage. 

1639. Plus de is not an adverb, since plus is followed by a 
preposition and by an object, but davantage is always an ad- 
verb. 



456 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

1640. There are many persons who use davantage instead 
of le plus ; it is a fault. We ought to say : 

Among all the flowers of a garden, De toutes les fleurs d'un parterre, 
the rose is that which pleases me la rose est celle qui me plait le 
the most. plus (and not davantage). 

1641. AdVerbs of comparison are those which are employed 
to compare persons and things together ; among them, the fol- 
lowing: 

Aussi, as, Si, so, 

Autant, as much, Tant, so much, 

are are always followed by the conjunction que. 

Si and aussi precede the adjectives and participles ; tant 
and antant are joined to verbs, past participles, and nouns ; as, 

The imagery of Pope is as perfect Les images de Pope sont aussi par- 
as his style is harmonious. faites que son style est harmoni- 

eux. 

Low vice and brutal impudence are Le vice grossier etl'impudence bru- 
often not so dangerous as modest tale souvent ne sont pas si dan- 
beauty, gereux gw'une beaute modeste. 

She is as much loved as she is re- Elle est aussi aimee que respectee. 
spected. 

She has as much virtue as kindness. Elle a autant de vertu que de bonte. 

She has not so much beauty as wit. Elle n'a pas autant de beaute que 

d 'esprit. 

We may, nevertheless, employ autant instead of aussi, with 
two adjectives which are separated only by one or the other 
of these words, followed by que ; as, 

She is as modest as witty. Elle est modeste autant que spiritu- 

elle. 

We see, by the above examples, that aussi and autant are 
used in affirmative sentences, whereas si and tant are generally 
used in the negative. 

1642. However, Si and tant are the only adverbs which may 
be employed in affirmative sentences when used for tellement, 
so much ; as, 

He has become so big and so fat II est devenu si (tellement) gros et 
that he will, some of these days, si (tellement) gras qu'on le trou- 
be found choked in his bed. vera, un de ces jours, etouffe 

dans son lit. 

He has run so much that he is out II a tant (tellement) couru qu'il est 
of breath. hors d'haleine. 



ADVERB. 



457 



THE FOLLOWING IS A LIST OF ALL THE ADVERBS, CLASSI- 
FIED ACCORDING TO THEIR SIGNIFICATION. 



Past: 

Hier, 

Avant hier, 

Autrefois, 

Jadis, 

Anciennement, 

Dernierement, 

Depuis peu, 

Nagu&re, 

Auparavant, 

Recemment, 

Nouvellement, 

La derniere fois, 

L'autrejour, 

Jusqu'a, 

Jusqu'a present, 

1644. Present 

A present, 
Pour le present, 
Presentement, 
Maintenant, 
Aujourd'hui, 
A cette heure, 
Sur le champ, 
Vite, 

1645. Future : 

Demain, 
Apres demain, 
Le lendemain, 
Le sur lendemain, 
Bientot, 
Dans peu, 
Tantot, 
Desormais, 
Dorenavant, 



1643. Adverbs of Time. 



yesterday. 

day before yesterday. 

formerly, in former times, anciently, of old, &c. 

" in old times, old, former, &c. 

<t << << <( 

lately, of late. 

" " not long- since, 
before, first, formerly, 
recently, &c. 
newly, recently, &c. 
the last time, 
the other day. 
until now. 

&c. 



now, in our days, &c. 

for the present, &c. 

presently. 

now, at present, at this time. 

to-day, this day, now, at present, in this age, &c. 

at this hour, now, &c. 

immediately, instantly, &c. 

quickly, &c. 



to-morrow. 

the day after to-morrow. 

the next day. 

the day after the next. 

soon, very soon, in a short time. 

soon, in a little while, &c. 

by and by. 

henceforth, hereafter. 

" for the future, 

in the future, some future day. 



A l'avenir, 

1646. Adverbs of time indeterminate, referring to no par 
ticular period : 



D'abord, 

Souvent, 

Quelquefois, 

Rarement, 

Soudain, 

Subitement, 



first, at first, at first sight, 
often, many times, 
sometimes, 
seldom, rarely, &c. 
suddenly, all at once. 

" on a sudden, unawares, unexpectedly. 



39 



458 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



Au plus tot, 

Au plus tard, 

Au plus vite, 

Jamais, 

Toujours, 

Pour toujours, 

A toute heure, 

A tout moment, 

A tout bout de champ, 

Continuellement, 

Sans cesse, 

Incessamment, 

Cependant, 

A l'ordinaire, 

D 'ordinaire, 

Ordinairement, 

Frequemment, 

Presque toujours, 

Presque jamais, 

La plupart du temps, 

Tot, 

Tard, ^ 

Trop tot, 

Trop tard, 

De bonne heure, 

Pas encore, 

Longtems, 

Alors, 

Pour lors, 

Des lors, 

Depuis, 

Encore, 

Derechef, 

De nouveau, 

De plus belle, 

A loisir, 

Tout d'un coup, 

Tout-a-coup, 

Plus que jamais, 

A point nomme, 

A propos, 

Fort a propos, 

En moins de rien, 

En un clin d'ceil, 

Tout le jour, 

A temps, . 

En tout temps, 

En temps et lieu, 



as soon as possible. 

at farthest. 

as quick as possible. 

ever, never. 

ever, always, continually, still. 

for ever. 

at any hour, at any time. 

at every moment, constantly. 

at every touch and turn. 

continually. 

without ceasing, perpetually, continually. 

incessantly, without intermission. 

in the mean time, in the mean while, however. 

as usual, as before, as formerly. 

most times, most commonly, usually. 

ordinarily, generally, of course, mostly. 

frequently, often, many times. 

almost always. 

hardly ever. 

most always, most of the time. 

soon, quick, quickly. 

late. 

too soon, over soon. 

too late. 

early, in good time, in season. 

not yet. 

long, a long or great while. 

then, at that time. 

from that time, ever since then. 

since, since or from that time. 

yet, still, again, even, also, too, &c. 

anew, over again, afresh, again, once more. 

it it a a it 

still more. 

leisurely, at leisurely, leisurably. 

all at once, at once, all on a sudden. 

suddenly. 

more than ever. 

in time, seasonably. 

to the purpose, opportunely, apropos. 

in pudding time. 

in less than nothing, in a twinkle. 

all the day long. 

in time, in season, &c. 

at all times. 

in proper time and place, &c. 



1647. Adverhs of Place. 



Oii, 


where. 


D'oti, 


whence, from whence. 


Par oil, 


which way. 


Ici, 


here. 



ADVERB, 



459 



D'ici, 
Par ici, 
Pres d'ici, 
La, 
De la, 
La haut, 
En haut, 
Ici-dessus, 
Ici-bas, 
A bas, 
En bas, 
La bas, 
D'en haut, 
D'en bas, 
Par en haut, 
Par en bas, 
Dedans, 
En dedans, 
Dehors, 
En dehors, 
Jusqu'ou, 
Jusqu'ici, 
Jusque la, 
Alentour, 
Aux environs, 
Loin, 
Bien loin, 
Pres, 

Bien pres, 
Proche, 
Tout proche, 
Aupr&s, 
Tout aupres, 
Tout contre, 
Pres d'ici, 
Ici pres, 
De pres, 
De plus pres, 
Vis-a-vis, 
A cote, 
De cote, 
A terre, 
Devant, 
Derriere, 
Dessus, 
Ci-dessus, 
Au dessus, 
Par dessus, 
Dessous, 
Ci-dessous, 
Au dessous, 
Quelque part, 
Nulle part, 
Ailleurs, 
Partant, 
Dega, 



hence, from hence, from this place. 

this way. 

hard by. 

there. 

from there. 

up there. 

up, above, at the top. 

here upon this. 

in this world, here below. 

down, upon the ground. 

down below, downward. 

yonder, below. 

from above. 

from below. 

upwards. 

downwards. 

inside, within, in. 

a a 

out, without, out of doors, externally. 

outside, out doors, without. 

how far. 

till then, as far as this place, until now. 

till there, as far as that place, until then. 

about, round about, around. 

about, around, in the neighbourhood. 

far, distant. 

very far, at a great distance, a great way. 

near, close. 

very near, on the eve, &c. 

at hand, near, &c. 

close by, very near. 

near, close, &c. 

close, very near. 

hard by, near. 



near, hard by, close, about. 

closer, nearer, more closely, &c. 

opposite, over the way, oppositely. 

by, aside, near, laterally. 

sidewise, askew, by, aside. 

on the ground, down. 

before, former, formerly. 

behind, backwards. 

above, upon. 

above. 

over head, above. 

above, over, over and above, besides, beyond. 

underneath, beneath. 

hereafter. 

below, under. 

somewhere, anywhere. 

nowhere. 

elsewhere, somewhere else. 

everywhere. 

this way, this side. 



460 

Dela, 

Par dela,, 
Ca et la, 
Plus loin, 
Ceans, 
A droite, 
A gauche, 
Tout droit, 
Tout du long, 
Tout le long. 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

beyond, on that side. 

u u 

here and there. 

further. 

within, here within this house, at home. 

on the right hand, to the right. 

on the left hand, to the left. 

straight on, straight along, straight way. 

along, all along. 



1648. Of Adverbs of Order. 



Premierement, 

Seeondement, 

Deuxiemement, 

Troisiemement, 

En premier lieu, 

En dernier lieu ? 

Avant, 

Apres, 

Desuite, 

Ensuite, 

Tout de suite, 

Ensemble, 

A la file, 

De front, 

Tour a tour, 

A la ronde, 

Alternativement, 

A la fois, 

Enfin, 

A la fin, 

Par ordre, 

En sous ordre, 

Confinement, 

Pele mele, 

En foule, 

De fond en comble, 

Sens dessus dessous, 

Sens devant derriere, 

Tout a rebours, 

Pareillement, 

Semblablement, 

De la meme manure, 



first, first of all, in the first place, 
secondly, in the second place, 

tf u 

thirdly, in the third place, &e. 

first, in the first place, &c. 

at last, in fine, after all, &c. 

far, deep, forward, before. 

after, after that, subsequently. 

together, one after another, at once. 

afterwards, then, subsequently. 

all together, at once, right way. 

together, one with another, all at once* 

one after another, in file. 

in the front, abreast. 

in turn, one after another. 

all around.. 

alternately. 

altogether, all at once. 

in fine, at last, lastly, finally, at length, in short, 

&c. 
at last, at length, in the end, &c. 
by order, in order, 
order, in subordination to another, 
confusedly, in a jumble, indistinctly, &c 
pellmell, " " 

crowded together, in a crowd, 
from top to bottom, utterly, &c. 
topsy-turvy, 
the wrong way, preposterously, &c. 

" quite the reverse, &c. 

likewise, in like manner, equally, &c» 

ic a u 

" in the same way, &c. 



ADVERB. 



461 



1649. Of Adverbs of Quantity. 



Combien, 

Peu, 

Autant, 

Plus, 

A vil prix, 

Enticement, 

Un peu, 

Tant soit peu, 

Beaucoup, 

Guere, 

Pas beaucoup, 

Assez, 

Suffisamment, 

Trop, 

Trop peu, 

Par trop, 

Peu-a-peu, 

A peu-pres, 

Environ, 

A peu de chose pres, 

Tant, 

Davantage, 

Moins, 

De plus, 

De plus en plus, 

Au plus, tout au plus, 

D'autant plus, 

Ni plus ni moins, 

Plus ou moins, 

Au moins, 

Pour le moins, 

Abondamment, 

En grand nombre, 

A foison, 

Cher, 

Trop cher, 

Cherement, 

A bon marche, 

A grand marche, 

A demi, 

Infiniment, 

A l'infini, 

Tout-a-fait, 

Tout ensemble, 

Etrangement, 

Admirablement, 

Me rve il I e u seme nt, 

Presque, 

Peu a peu, 

Quasi, 

Absolument, 

Passablement, 



how much, how many, what, &c. 

little, but little, few, but few. 

as much, as many, so much, so many. 

more. 

at a cheap rate. 

entirely. 

a little, a few. 

ever so little, but little. 

much, very much, many, a great deal, &c 

few, little, not much, not very, not long, &c. 

U a u it 

sufficiently, sufficient, enough. 

u u u 

too much, too many, 
too little, too few. 
too, too much, too many, 
little, by little, by degrees, 
nearly, about, &c. 



so much, so many. 

more. 

less. 

more 

more and more. 

at most. 

the more so. 

nevertheless, notwithstanding that, &c. 

more or less, there about. 

at least. 
it 

abundantly, profusely, &c. 

in great number, " " 

plentifully, copiously, &c. 

dear, dearly. 

too dear, too dearly, too much, &c. 

dear, dearly. 

at a good bargain, cheap, cheaply, &c. 

very cheap, for nothing, &c. 

by half, by halves, &c. 

infinitely, much, very much, &c. 

infinitely, without end, ad infinitum. 

entirely, completely, altogether, &c. 

altogether, the whole. 

strangely, wonderfully, &c. 

admirably, " &c. 

ii u 

almost, nearly, &c. 

little by little. 

almost, nearly, &c. 

absolutely, entirely, completely, &c. 

passably, tolerably, so so, indifferently, &c. 

39* 



462 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



Mediocrement, tolerably, so so, indifferently. 

Combien de fois, how many times, how often, &c. 

Une fois, once, but once, &e. 

Bien, many, a great deal, a great many, &c. 

Tant soit peu, but little, ever so little. 



1650. Of Adverbs of Manner. 



Bien, 

Mai, 

Fort bien, 

Fort mal, 

A merveille, 

Ni bien ni mal, 

Sagement, 

A l'aise, 

De but en blanc. 

A fond, 

A plomb, 

A nu, 

A plein, 

A plaisir, 

A faux, 

A peine, 

A regret, 

A contrecoeur, 

A contregre, 

De plein gre, 

De bon gre, 

De force, 

Par force, 

A couvert, 

A decouvert, 

Au naturel, 

A reculons, 

En arriere, 

A la renverse, 

A tatons, 

A l'endroit, 

A l'envers, 

Du bon sens, 

Du mauvais sens, 

De tout sens, 

A bon droit, 

A tort, 

A tort et a travers, 

A l'envi, 

Ala rigueur, 

De sens rassis, 



well, right, rightly, &c. 

bad, badly, wrongly, &c. 

very well. 

very bad, very badly. 

admirably well, wonderfully, exceedingly well. 

neither bad nor well, &c. 

wisely, &c. (Thus come all the adverbs formed 

from adjectives and ending in merit.) 

comfortably, easily, at large, &c. 

abruptly, bluntly, &c. 

thoroughly, perfectly, &c. 

perpendicularly, directly, &c. 

naked, bare, nakedly, openly, &c. 

entirely, fully. 

carefully, well, at leisure, at one's ease. 

unjustly, wrongfully, falsely, &c. 

scarcely, hardly, &c. 

with regret, with reluctance, &c 

reluctantly, unwillingly, with regret, &c. 
a u a 

on one's own accord, &e. 

lief. 

forcibly, by force. 



in the open air, openly, exposed to, &c. 

from nature. 

backwards. 

behind, behindhand. 

backwards, upon one's back. 

gropingly, in obscurity, in the dark. 

the right side outwards, &c. 

the wrong side outwards, upon the decline. 

on the right side, &c. 

on the wrong side, &c. 

on all sides, &c. 

rightly, justly, &c. 

wrongfully, unjustly, without a cause. 

inconsiderately, at random, &c. 

in emulation of one another, &c. 

strictly, rigorously, &c. 

in cold blood, deliberately. 



ADVERB. 



463 



De sang froid, 

Expres, 

A dessein, 

De propos delibere, 

Tout de bon, 

Serieusement, 

Pour rire, 

En riant, 

En badinant, 

De son chef, 

A 1 etourdie, 

A la legere, 

A la volee, 

A la hate, 

Precipitamment, 

Par inadvertance, 

Par megarde, 

Par meprise, 

Au hasard, 

Par hasard, 

A l'aventure, 

A tout hasard, 

Au pis aller, 

Goutte a goutte, 
A l'etroit, 
D'accord, 
A genoux, 
A mort, 
A la mort, 
Tout au long, 
Tout- a- fait, 
De bonne foi, 
A la bonne foi, 
En bonne foi, 
De bon jeu, 
De bonne guerre, 
De necessite, 
A toute force, 
A l'improviste, 
Au depourvu, 
Sans y penser, 
Sans s'y attendre, 
Inopineraent, 
A l'amiable, 
En ami, 
A fleur d'eau, 
A l'etuvee, 
En paix, 
En repos, 
A vide, 
A sec, 
Sans fagon, 
De travers, 
De biais, 
De niveau, 



coldly, deliberately. 

purposely, on purpose. 

designedly, on purpose, intentionally, &c. 

U (( u 

seriously, positively, certainly, &c. 

u a u 

in jest, in fun, &c. 



on one's own head, or accord, 
inconsiderately, giddily, rashly, heedlessly, &c. 
lightly, foolishly, wantonly, 
inconsiderately, at random, 
hastily, in haste, &c. 

" precipitately, rashly, &c. 
thoughtlessly, heedlessly, &c. 
inadvertently, " 

through mistake, tStc. 
at random, at venture, &c. 
by chance, perchance, accidentally, &c. 
at a venture, at all adventures, at random. 

« « u 

when all comes to all, let the worst come to the 

worst, 
drop by drop. 

narrowly, straitly, hardly, &c. 
well, I agree to it. 
on one's knees, 
mortally, to death. 

the whole, all, &c. 
entirely, quite, wholly, &c. 
sincerely, honestly, candidly, uprightly, &c. 
fairly, " " " " 

a u u u 



of necessity, by all means, &c. 
absolutely, without any possibility of resisting, 
unexpectedly, unawares, on a sudden. 
« u it 

without thinking, carelessly, thoughtlessly, &c. 
unexpectedly, unawares, on a sudden. 
a a h 

amiably, on a common accord, &c. 

friendly, &c. 

even, or level with the water, &c. 

stewed, boiled slow. 

at peace, peaceably. 

still, quiet, quietly, &c. 

empty. 

dry. 

without ceremony. 

cross, athwart, awry, askew. 

slanting, aslope, overtwarthly, &c. 

on a level, even, &c. 



464 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



Exactement, 
Fort et ferrne, 
En diligence, 
A la mode, 



exactly, correctly, &c. 
strong and hard, 
diligently, quickly, &c. 
after the fashion. 



1651. Of Adverbs of Affirmation , Negation, and Doubt. 

We have nothing to add, relative to these adverbs, to what 
we have already said above. 



1652. Of Adverbs of Comparison. 



Aussi, 


thus, so, in this manner. 


De meme. 


the same. 


Comrae, 


as. 


En partie, 


in part, partially, &c. 


Tout autant, 


as much, as many, &c. 


Tout a la fois, 


altogether, all at once, both, &c. 


Separement, 


separately, one after another, &c. 


A part, 


except, if it was not for, &c. 


A l'ecart, 


in a by-place, aside. 


Plus, 


more. 


Pis, 


worse. 


De pis en pis, 


from worse to worse. 


Mieux, 


better, best. 


De mieux en mieux, 


better and better. 


Ni plus ni moins, 


neither more nor less. 


A plus forte raison, a 
fortiori, 


> still more so. 


Si, 


so. 


Aussi, 


as. 


Moins, 


less. 


Universellement, 


universally, generally, &c. 


Generalement, 


(( u 


Doucement, 


softly, kindly. 


Assurement, 


assuredly, certainly. 


Particulierement, 


particularly. 


Principalement, 


principally, &c. 


Surtout, 


above all, especially. 


Apres tout, 


after all. 


Au contraire, 


on the contrary, on the reverse, &c 


1653. Of Interrogative Adverbs. 


Ou, 


where. 


D'ou, 


whence. 



ADVERB. 465 



Quand, when. 

Combien, how much, how many, &c. 

Combien de fois, how many times. 

Comment, how. 

Pourquoi, why. 



1654. Having thus, at great length, shown what the ad- 
verbs are, we have now to explain how they must be used ; 
for it is not unimportant whether they be placed before or 
after the words which they modify. 

The nature of the adverb is elliptical ; it is used generally 
as an abbreviation ; it is a sort of proposition by itself, since 
we find in it not only a separate idea, as we do in the noun, 
pronoun, article, adjective, and preposition, but an entire and 
complete sense. It is employed not only to express some 
circumstance of time and place, but also a modification ; this 
modification being produced, not only by a quality merely de- 
clarative, but by an active quality expressed by a verb, or even 
by a passive quality ; it is consequently more frequently em- 
ployed to qualify a verb, than an adjective. We may per- 
ceive, then, that the adverb must never be too far from the 
adjective, whose extent of signification it ought to restrain, or 
from the verb itself, which it is to modify. 



1655. Of the Place of the Adverb. 

Adverbs, as we have said, modify verbs, adjectives, and 
even other adverbs. Let us see what is their place in regard 
to these words. 

1656. \st Rule. The adverb is generally placed after the 
verb in the simple tenses, and between the auxiliary and the 
past participle in the compound : as, 

The best informed man, is gener- L'homme le mieux informe est or- 

ally he who thinks the least of dinairement celui qui pense le plus 

himself. modestement de lui-meme. 

Have you ever seen a more tedious Avez-xous jamais vu un plus ennu- 

pedant ? yeux pedant ? 



466 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

1657. Remark. We always place after the verb the com- 
pound adverbs , or adverbial expressions : as, 

This is the fashion. C'est a la mode. 

He has acted in accordance with his II a agi consiquemment a ses princi- 
principles. pes, or consequemment. 

We also place after the verb adverbs which designate time 
in a relative manner : as, 

One ruins his health by working On se mine la sante a travailler 

late. tard. 

One must go to bed and get up On doit se coucher de bonne heure et 

early. se lever matin. 

1658. Exception 1st. Adverbs of arrangement are placed 
either before or after the verbs, as well as those which express 
time in a fixed and determinate manner ; thus we may say : 

We must first do our duty, secondly Nous devons premidrement faire 
seek honest pleasures. notre devoir, secondement chercher 

des plaisirs honnetes. 

The weather is fine to-day, it will Aujourd'hui il fait beau, demain il 
rain to-morrow. pleura. 

Or, 

H fait beau aujourd'hiii, il pleuvra demain. 

1659. Remark. When the verb is in the infinitive mood, 
the monosyllabic adverbs are placed either before or after this 
infinitive ; thus we may say : 

To sing well. Bien chanter, or chanter bien. 

To speak better. Mieux parler, or parler mieux. 

We must, in these cases, consult the ear and taste. 

1660. Exception 2d. The following adverbs ought to be 
placed before the verb : comment, how, ow, where, pourquoi, 
why, combien, how much, how many, quand, when. 

How do you do ? Comment vous portez-vous ? 

Where do you go ? Oh allez-vous ? 

Why do you not like and respect Pourquoi n'aimez-vous pas et ne 

God ? respectez-vous pas Dieu ? 

You do not know when you will Vous ne savez pas quand vous 

die. mourrez. 

How much have you paid for your Combien avez-vous paye votre mai- 

house ? son ? 

How many oranges have you Combien d 'oranges avez-vous ache- 
bought ? te ? 



ADVERB. 467 

1661. 2d Rule. The adverb is always placed before the 
adjective which it modifies : 

She is a very handsome, very sensi- C'est une femme fort belle, tres 
ble, and very honest woman. sensible, et infiniment honnete. 

1662. 3d Rule. When two adverbs are used together, 
adverbs of quantity are always placed before the others, as 
well as the three following, souvent, often, toujour s, always, 
jamais, never : as, 

So often, very happily, most adroit- Si souvent, tres heureusement, le 

ly, less honestly. plus adroitement, moins honnete- 

ment. 

They are always together. lis sont toujours ensemble. 

They shall never be closely united. lis ne seront jamais itroitement unis. 

It is often the case that he arrives C'est souvent soudainement qu'il 

suddenly. arrive. 

1663. However, the adverb souvent, often, may be pre- 
ceded by an adverb of quantity : as, 

So often. Si souvent. 

Very often. Trts souvent. 

Too often. Trop souvent. 

Adverbs of quantity are often found in the same sentence, 
modifying each other ; but only a long use of the language 
can indicate, with certainty, which of them must be placed 
first ; the understanding must be exercised, and the adverb 
expressing the idea which is to be modified must always be 
used the last : as, 

So little, too little, very little, much Si peu, trop peu, tres or bien peu, 
more, much less, &c. beaucoup plus, beaucoup moins, 

&c. 

It is clear, that in the above expressions the mind refers to 
these adverbs, peu, little, plus, more, moins, less, in a manner, 
which is expressed by the modifying adverbs, si, trop, tres, 
&c, placed before them. 



1664. Of the Negative Adverb ne. 

There is no word in the French language of a more difficult 
application, than the negative ne; we will adopt on this subject 



468 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

the opinions of Bauzee, as Levizac has not hesitated to do 
the same himself. 

1665. A negation is expressed in French either by the 
word ne alone, or by ne accompanied by pas, point, or any 
other negative or restrictive word ; thus we have to consider 
the four following questions : 

1st. What is the place of the negative words ? 

2d. When is it that pas ought to be preferred to point, and 
vice versa ? 

3d. When is it that pas and point may be suppressed ? 

4th. When is it that pas or point ought to be suppressed ? 

But before discussing these points, let us remove a wrong 
impression which exists among foreigners, and among too many 
French people, that is, that in the French language two nega- 
tions are equal to an affirmation ; this fact, although true in 
Latin, is not true in French. 



1666. 1st Question. What is the Place of the negative 
words 9 

JVe in all cases is placed before the verb, and precedes all 
the pronouns and adverbs which the construction of the sen- 
tence requires to be placed before it : as, 

You do not say. Vous ne dites pas. 

You do not think so. Vous ne le pensez pas. 

I am going into the country and I Je vais a la campagne et je n'y 

shall not carry my daughter there. menerai pas ma fille. 

The place of pas or point varies. 

1667. When the verb is in the present of the infinitive 
mood, they are sometimes placed before, sometimes after the 
verb ; the ear must be consulted as well as taste : placed 
before, the negation has a stronger meaning. We say : 
In order not to see. Pour ne voir pas, or pour ne pas voir. 

But the second expression is stronger than the first. 

When the verb is in the imperative mood, pas or point are 

always placed after the verb : as, 

Do not play. Ne jouez pas or point. 

Do not hurt me. Ne me faites pas mal. 



ADVERB. 469 

1668. In all other moods, and in all tenses of these 

moods, as well as in those of the infinitive, except the present, 

the tenses are either simple or compound ; if simple, the two 

negations, pas or point, go after the verb ; if compound, they 

are placed between the auxiliary and past participle : as, 

He does not speak. II ne parle pas. 

Not speaking. Ne parlant pas. 

He has not spoken. II n'a pas parle. 

Having not spoken. iV'ayant pas parle. 

Has he not spoken ? iVa-t-il pas parle ? 



1669. When is it that pas ought to be preferred to point, 
and vice versa 9 

In order to decide upon this question, we must know what 
is the power of these two words ; their use, in most cases, 
depends upon the views of the mind. 

Point denies more strongly than pas. 

Point designates something permanent, stable. 

He reads not, he plays not, II ne lit point, il ne joue point , 

signify, that he never reads, he never plays. 

Point, then, designates a habit, conveys an idea of duration. 

Pas, on the contrary, expresses something which is transi- 
tory, temporary, accidental. When I say : 
He does not read, he does not play, II ne lit pas, il ne joue pas, 

I mean to mention only, that he does not read or play now, at 
this moment ; pas, then, marks the state of the moment. 

Point indicates a negation without reserve ; as, 
He has no wit. II n'a point d'esprit. 

That is to say, he has no mind at all. This phrase is equiva- 
lent to the expression, He is stupid. 
But if we use pas, and say : 

II n'a pas d'esprit, 
we express only that his mind has nothing striking, which is 
not so absolute as the former expression. 

From the foregoing considerations, the Academy concludes, 
that 

40 



470 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

1670. Pas is to be preferred to point : 

1st. Before si, plus, moins, autant, &c, and other compar- 
ative expressions ; as, 

Milton is not less sublime than Ho- Milton n'est pas moins sublime 
mer. qu'Homere. 

1671. 2d. Before nouns of number ; as, 
Not ten years since. II n'y a pas dix ans. 

Point, on the contrary, is the only word which ma}' be used 
in some elliptical phrases, as the following : 

I thought I had an honest man to Je croyais avoir affaire a un honnete 
deal with, but it is not so. homme, mais point. 

And in answer to an interrogation ; as, 

Shall you go to the theatre to Irez-vous au theatre ce soir ? Point. 
night ? No. 

In these two cases, usage does not admit the employment of 
pas, but it would be better to use the negative adverb non. 

At the end of a sentence, it is more elegant to use point 

than pas ; as, 

They laughed at him, and he did On s'amusait a ses depens, et il ne 
not perceive it. s'en appercevoit point. 

1672. The Academy establishes another distinction between 
pas and point in interrogative sentences ; when we say : 

Have you not seen such a person ? N'avez-vous point vu telle personne ? 

we wish to ask only a simple question, w T hich is, whether you 
have not seen such a person ; our mind has nothing else in 
view. But, if we say : 

N'avez-vous pas vu telle personne ? 

we wish to express the idea that we think that the individual 
to whom the question is put has, in fact, seen the person, and 
we only pretend to ascertain it. 



1673. When is it that we may with elegance and propriety 
suppress pas or point ? 

Pas or point may be elegantly suppressed with the verbs 
cesser, to cease, oser, to dare, pouvoir, to be able, savoir, to 



ADVERB. 



471 



know (meaning, with Tie, to be ignorant of). This omission 
is simply an elegance, but we seldom dispense with it. 

He does not cease crying. II ne cesse de pleurer. 

He did not dare to resist him face to II n'osa lui resister en face. 

face. 

He could not succeed in this affair. II neput reussir dans cette affaire. 

He does not know what he says. II ne salt ce qu'il dit. 

Pas and point are also suppressed in interrogative sentences 
which express a negation or a doubt ; as, 

Is there a man whom she does not Y-a-t-il un homme dont elle ne me- 

slander ? dite ? 

Have you a friend who is not my Avez-vous un ami que ne soit un 

friend also ? des miens ? 



1674. When is it that pas or point ought to be suppressed ? 

Pas and point are omitted, — 

1st. When the negative is clearly expressed either bywords 
which restrict it, or by those which do not require restriction, 
and, finally, by such words as are employed to express the 
smallest parts of any thing considered as a whole, employed 
without an article. 

1675. In the first case, when the negation is sufficiently an- 
nounced by words which restrict it, we say, 

He does not go out much. II ne sort gueres. 

I shall not go out for three days. Je ne sortirai de trois jours. 

In these two sentences, gueres and de trois jours are suffi- 
ciently restrictive to complete the negative idea without the 
help of pas. 

1676. In the second case, when the negation, ?&e, is accom- 
panied by Avords which admit of no restriction, being entirely 
negative in themselves, we say, 

I never take any tea. Je ne fiends jamais de the. 

I will not see him while I live. Je ne le verrai de ma vie (meaning 

never). 
I do not think of it any more. Je n'y pense plus. 

Not one believes in it. Pas un n'y croit. 

Do not use any of these stratagems. N'employez aucun de ces strata- 

g6mes. 
He pleases nobody. II ne plait a personne. 

He loves nobody. II n'aime personne, or qui quece soit. 

You admire nothing. Vous n'admirez rien. 



472 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

You value nothing. Vous ne prisez quoi que ce soit. 

He has remained with nothing. II ne lui est reste chose quelconque. 

I did not think of it at all. Je n'y pensais nullement. 

I do not wish it at all. Je n'en veux aucunement, &c. 

In these sentences, the words jamais, de ma vie, plus, pas 
un, aucun, personne, qui que ce soit, rien, quoi que ce soit, quel- 
conque, nullement, and aucunement, do not require any restric- 
tion, being themselves entirely restrictive and negative. 

1677. In the third case, when the negative word ne is fol- 
lowed by expressions signifying the smallest parts of a thing 
considered as a whole, without an article, we say : 

He does not see at all. II n'y voit goutte. 

He has not gathered a bit of it. II n'en a cueilli brin. 

He will not taste it at all. II n'en tatera mie. 

These three expressions are kept in the language, but they 
are old and but little used, except the first. 
He does not say a word. II ne dit mot. 

1678. But, if the words expressing the smallest parts of a 
thing considered as a whole are preceded by a numerical ad- 
jective, the second negation, pas, is required after the verb : 

He does not say a word which is not II ne dit pas un mot qui ne soit in- 
interesting, teressant. 

In this speech, there are not three Dans ce discours, il n'y a pas trots 

words to be corrected. mots a reprendre. 

There is not a bit of it. II n'y en a pas un brin. 

1679. Pas is also used with ne, before the preposition de, 

of; as, 

I do not doubt that, &c. II ne fait pas de doute que, &c. 

He never makes any useless ad- II ne fait pas de demarche inutile, 
vance. 

1680. Remark. When, after sentences similar to the pre- 
ceding, the conjunction que or a relative pronoun is followed 
by a negative phrase, pas or point is suppressed ; as, 

I never commit an excess without Je ne fais jamais d'exces que je w'en 

being sick. sois incommode. 

I did not see a single person y ester- Je ne vis personne hier qui ne vous 

day who did not praise you. louat. 

I will make no objection to you but Jene vous femiaucune objection, que 

what I can sustain with sufficient je ne l'appuie de bonnes preuves. 

proofs. 

1681. 2d. When two negative propositions are connected 
together by the negative conjunction ni ; as, 

I neither love nor respect him. Je ne l'aime ni ne l'estime. 



ADVERB. 473 

When the negative conjunction ni is repeated in the nomina- 
tive of the verb ; as, 

Neither gold nor grandeur renders Ni l'or ni la grandeur ne nous ren- 
us happy. dent heureux. 

When the negative conjunction ni is repeated before the at- 
tribute ; as, 
He is neither prudent nor wise. H w'est ni prudent ni sage. 

When the negative conjunction ni is repeated before the ob- 
ject ; as, 
He has neither debts nor lawsuits. II w'a ni dettes ni proces. 

Remark. We may employ the second negation pas, when ni 

is not repeated, and is separated from the first negation, ne, by 

a number of words, which may prevent the recollection of the 

negative idea ; as, 

I do not like this vain display of eru- Je n'aime pas ce vain etalage d'eru- 

dition shown without discrimina- dition, prodiguee sans choix et 

tion or taste, nor this superabun- sans gout, ni ce luxe de mots qui 

dance of words which signify ne disent rien. 
nothing. 

1682. 3d. When ne, used with que, has the meaning of 

seulement, only, but ; as, 

A man who loves himself only is Un homme qui rc'aime que lui, n'est 
loved by nobody. aime de personne. 

When the verb is preceded by que, used instead of pour- 

quoi, why, we say : 

Why are you not as reasonable as Que Ti'etes vous aussi raisonnable 
your brother ? que votre frere ? 

When the verb is preceded by amoins que, or si, having the 
same meaning, unless ; as, 

I shall not go out unless you call for Je ne sortirai pas amoins que vous ne 

me. veniez me prendre. 

I shall not go to his ball, if he does Je n'irai pas a son bal, s'il ne m'y 

not send me an invitation by let- invite par une lettre. 
ter. 

1683. 4th. When, before the conjunction que, the word 
rien, nothing, is understood ; as, 

He does nothing but laugh. H ne fait (rien) que rire. 

When the conjunction que may be turned by sinon, si ce 
n'est que, if not ; as, 

40* 



474 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Too many masters serve but to Trop de maitres a la fois ne servent 
trouble the mind. (a rien, si ce n'est, or sinon a) 

<?w'a embrouiller l'esprit. 

1684. 5th. When a verb in the preterite indefinite, the plu- 
perfect, or the future anterior is preceded by the conjunction 
depuis que, or by que preceded by the verb il y a, there is ; 
as, 

How have you been since we have Comment vous etes vous porte de- 
seen you ? puis que nous ne vous avons vu ? 

We have not seen him for the last II y a trois mois que nous ne V avons 

three months. vu. 

We had not met for a long time. 11 y avait longtems que nous ne nous 

itions rencontre's. 

When you have been out of your Quand il y aura douze ans que vous 

country for twelve years, you will rtaurez vu votre patrie, vous y 

come back to it. rentrerez. 

1685. Remark. But the second negation is not suppressed 
whenever the verb is in the present, the imperfect, or the fu- 
ture present ; as, 

How does he live now that we do Comment vit-il depuis que nous ne le 

not see him any more ? voyons plus ? 

We have not seen him for the last II y a six mois que nous ne le voyons 

six months. point. 

We had ceased visiting- each other II y avait longtems que nous ne nous 

for a long time. voyions plus. 

When you shall have been sick ten Quand il y aura dix ans, que vous ne 

years, you will have the right to serez pas bien portant, vous aurez 

complain. le droit de vous plaindre. 

1686. 6th. When the conjunction que is preceded by the 
comparative adverbs, plus, moins, mieux, &c, or the words 
autre, autrement, peu, &c, used as comparatives ; as, 

He writes better than he speaks. II ecrit mieux qtf'A ne parle. 

We despise those who speak other- On meprise ceux qui parlent autre- 

wise than they think. ment ^w'il ne pensent. 

This is different from what I C'est autre chose que je ne croyais. 

thought. 

I have come very near being de- Peu s'en est fallu que je n'aie ete 

deceived. trompee, &c. 

1687. Remark. It ought to be remarked, that, in expres- 
sions similar to the preceding, the negation ne is used only 
when the first member of the sentence is affirmative ; but, if 
the two negations are used in it, then the negation ne should 
be suppressed in the second member of the sentence ; thus we 
may say : 



ADVERB. 475 

He does not write any better than II n'eciit pas mieux qu'il parle. 

he speaks. 
We do not respect those who speak Nous n'estimons pas ceux qui par- 

differently from what they think. lent autrement qu'ils pensent. 

This is not otherwise than I thought. Ceci n'est pas autre chose que je 

croyais, &c. 

1688. 7th. In phrases united by the conjunction que to 
the verbs douter, to doubt, desesperer, to despair, nier and 
disconvenir, to deny, forming a negative sentence : as, 

I do not doubt that he will come. Je ne doute pas qu'il ne vienne. 

Do not despair to succeed by these Ne disesperez pas que ce moyen ne 

means. vous reussisse. 

I do not deny having said such a Je ne nie pas que je ne l'aie dit. 

thing. 

I do not deny that it might be so. Je ne disconviens pas que celane soit. 

1689. Remark. The Academy observes, that with the 
two last verbs, nier and disconvenir, the negation ne may be 
dispensed with, in the second member of the sentence, and 
that we may say : 

Je ne nie pas, or je ne disconviens pas que cela soit. 

1690. 8th. Pas is also omitted in the second member of 
sentences beginning with the verbs empecher, prendre garde, 
meaning, to take care : as, 

I shall take care that you will not Vemptclxerai que vous ne soyez du 

be included in the number. nombre. 

Take care that they do not seduce Prenez garde qu'ils ne vous sedui- 

you. sent. 

1691. Remark. In this acceptation, the verb prendre 
garde is followed by the subjunctive ; but if this verb signifies 
to think, then it requires the indicative, and to be followed by 
pas or point : as, 

Think only that you do not under- Prenez garde que vous ne m'entendez 
stand me. pas. 

1692. 9th. It is also omitted with verbs united by the con- 
junction que to the verb craindre, to fear, and others of similar 
meaning, when we do not wish for what is expressed by the 
second part of the sentence : as, 

He is afraid that his brother will II craint que son frere ne l'aban- 

forsake him. donne. 

I fear my friend will die. Je crains que mon ami ne meure. 



476 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

1693. But pas is not suppressed when we wish for what is 
expressed by the second verb : as, 

I fear my father will not come. Je crains que mon pere ne vienne 

pas. 

We ought to remark, that the verbs empecher, prendre 
garde, craindre, and their synonymes, require ne in the second 
member of the sentence, only when ne and pas are not used in 
the first ; for, if these two negations are in the principal prop- 
osition, ne should not be used in the incidental ; the two 
following lines of Racine well illustrate this remark : 

Helas ! on ne craint point qu'il venge un jour son pere ; 
On craint qu'il n'essuydt les larmes de sa mere. 

1694. We used to say, formerly : 

If we do not wish to do good, we Si Ton ne veut pas faire le bien, il 
must not prevent others from ne faut pas empecher que les au- 
doing it. tres ne le fassent. 

We say now : 

II ne faut pas empecher que les autres le fassent. 

1695. Remark. It seems, that with the verbs empecher , 
prendre garde, craindre, and their synonymes, we ought not to 
employ the ne when we do not wish for what is expressed by 
the second verb, for then the negation ne is merely expletive ; 
but we must retain it, notwithstanding, in this sentence : 

I am engaged, and I do not wish to J'ai affaire, et je ne veux pas qu'on 
be interrupted ; I fear, however, vienne m'interrompre ; je crains, 
that you will come. pourtant, que vous ne veniez. 

What means the word ne here ? It is your coming that 

I fear ; I ought then to say, simply : 

Je crains que vous veniez. 

No, says the Academy ; it is the mind of the speaker which 
requires this negation ; we mean : 

I do not wish you to come ; I fear, Je ne desire pas que vous veniez ; 
in wishing that you may not je crains, en souhaitant que vous 
come. ne veniez pas. 

The mind of the speaker is led to the negative ; it is filled 
with a strong desire that the event may not take place, and 
induces him to wish to make every effort to prevent any thing 



ADVERB. 477 

from hindering the accomplishment of his desire. Thus the 
negative is introduced in the discourse as a natural consequence 
of the direction of his thoughts. 

1696. According to the definition of the Abbe D'Olivet, 
the negation ne ought to be considered in two different points 
of view, negative and prohibitive, according to the manner in 
which we employ it. They will be easily distinguished, says 
he, if we remark, that when it is prohibitive it is never fol- 
lowed by pas or point, as is the case generally with the nega- 
tive ; and that by placing pas or point after the prohibitive, we 
should say just the reverse of what we intend. For instance, 
in the latter of the two lines of Racine, which we have quoted 
above : 

They fear that he would dry the On craint qu'il n'essuyat les larmes 
tears of his mother, de sa mere, 

if we add the negation, pas, after the verb, we shall have : 

They fear that he would not dry On craint qu'il n'essuyat pas les 
the tears of his mother, larmes de sa mere, 

which is exactly the contrary of what is meant. 

I confess, says he, that this prohibitive particle appears 
often superfluous in our language, but it has existed there from 
time immemorial ; why not, then, retain a word sanctioned by 
such long usage ? 

This opinion has been adopted by the Academy, who make 
the same distinction, and explain the usage of ne, without pas, 
according to the same principle ; if, say the Academy, we find 
this particle in the discourse, in phrases similar to the above, 
it represents the ne or quin of the Latin, which has been 
transmitted into our language. 

1697. 10th. Pas or point ought, also, to be omitted with 
the verb which follows de peur que, de crainte que, for fear 
that, in the same cases in which it is omitted with craindre. 
Thus, when we say : 

For fear that he should lose his De peur qu'il ne perde son proces, 
lawsuit, 

we wish him to gain the lawsuit ; but in the following, with the 
addition of pas : 



478 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

For fear that he might not lose his De peur qu'il ne perde pas son 
lawsuit, pioces, 

we wish that he might lose it. 

1698. 11th. Pas or point ought in all cases to be omitted 
after the verb savoir, meaning, to be able : as, 

I could not possibly do it. Je ne saurais en venir a bout. 

When savoir means, to be uncertain, it is also better to 
suppress the second negation : as, 

I do not know where to find him. Je ne sais oU le prendre. 

He does not know what he says. II ne salt ce qu'il dit. 

But pas or point must be used whenever the verb savoir is 
employed in its natural signification : as, 

He does not know the French. II ne sait pas le Francois. 

1699. 12th. Finally, pas and point are suppressed with que, 
meaning pourquoi, why, at the beginning of a sentence which 
is interrogative, and expresses desire, imprecation, &c. : as, 

Why have you not arrived sooner ? Que ra'etes vous arrive plus tot ? 

Why is it not permitted me to see Que ne m'est-il permis de revoir mes 

again my children ? enfants ? 

Why is he not a hundred miles Que rc'est-il a cent milles d'ici ? 

hence ? 

This article on the negation ne, although of great length, is 
far from containing all that could be said about it ; but the 
above rules are sufficient for a grammar. The remaining 
part belongs to dictionaries, and we will speak of it hereafter, 
in our " Translator," in which we propose to make an appli- 
cation of the rules contained in this grammar, and to explain 
such difficulties of the language as do not properly belong to 
this work. 



OF CONJUNCTIONS. 



1700. The different sorts of words of which we have hither- 
to treated serve for the composition of sentences ; but of 
sentences which are isolated from each other, and which, for 
the sake of clearness and precision, need to be united together, 



CONJUNCTION. 479 

so as to express satisfactorily the whole meaning of our 
thoughts, the complete operations of our mind. 

The mind unites things, ideas, persons, together, and also 
opposes them to each other ; it compares, divides, makes ex- 
ceptions, adds, diminishes, explains, designates, concludes, 
and shows the intention, the end, the time, the uncertainty, the 
motives, &c, which are necessary to express our ideas ; 
these operations, so diverse, must require many repetitions, 
much time, and also must create confusion, all of which diffi- 
culties are extremely simplified, and even avoided, with the 
help of conjunctions. 

Conjunctions, then, are words which serve to unite together 
phrases, or parts of phrases, thus rendering apparent and clear 
the various operations of the mind ; they are indeclinable, like 
prepositions and adverbs. 

1701. The word conjunction is derived from the two Latin 
words, cum and jungere, which signify to join with, together, 
and this name has been applied to any words which serve to 
join propositions together. 

1702. Conjunctions may be considered with regard to their 
formation, or their signification. 

1703. In regard to the formation of conjunctions, they are 
either simple or compound. Simple conjunctions are those 
which are expressed by a single word, as et, and, si, if, ou, or, 
mais, but, &c. Compound conjunctions are those which are 
formed of several words, as a moins que, unless, soit que, 
whether, pourvu que, provided, &c. 

1704. Considered in reference to their signification, con- 
junctions are divided into several classes ; and this mode of 
division is the most important to be understood correctly. 

1705. It is always easy to distinguish a conjunction from an 
adverb or a preposition, which are the only parts of speech 
that may be mistaken for them. 

1706. Simple conjunctions differ from the adverbs, inasmuch 
as they do not express any circumstance of the noun or verb 
which they precede or follow ; and they differ from the pre- 
positions in this respect, that their last word is almost always 
followed by de or que. 



480 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



1707. The different sorts of conjunctions correspond to the 
different operations of the mind, or to its wants ; accordingly, 
they may be either 

Copulative, Comparative, 

Disjunctive, Augmentative, 

Adversative, Diminutive, 

Restrictive, Causative, 

Conditional, Conclusive, 

Suspensive, Transitive, 

Concessive, Of Time, 

Declarative, Of Order, &c. 

1708. Copulative conjunctions are those which serve to 
unite two nouns or verbs in the same affirmation or negation. 

For the affirmative, we have 
Et, and : as, 

Science and virtue are two very 
respectable things. 

Jlussi, also. 

Since you wish it, we wish it also. 



La science et la vertu sont deux 
choses tres respectables. 



Puisque vous le voulez, nous le 
voulons aussi. 



Tant .... que, and. 



There were of us ten men and Nous etions dix, tant hommes que 
women. femmes. 

1709. For the negative, we have 
JVY, neither, nor. 

He neither drinks nor eats. II ne boit ni ne mange. 

Neither gold nor grandeur makes us Ni 1'or ni la grandeur ne nous ren- 
happy. dent heureux. 

Nonplus, either. 

Since you are not going out, I shall Puisque vous ne sortez pas, je ne 
not go either. sortirai pas non plus. 

1710. Disjunctive conjunctions are those which designate 
an alternative, or disjunction : as, 

On, or. 

Great king, cease conquering, or I shall cease writing. 
Grand roi, cesse de vaincre, ou je cesse d'ecrire. 

Ou bien, or. 

Let us go to the Tuileries, or to the Allons aux Tuileries, ou Men au bois 
woods of Boulogne. de Boulogne. 



CONJUNCTION. 



481 



Soit, either. 

We ought to preserve the same II faut toujours conserver la meme 

state of mind both in good and egalite d'ame, soit dans la bonne, 

in bad fortune. soit dans la mauvaise fortune. 

Soit que, whether. 

Whether you are happy or unfor- Soit que vous soyez heurenx, soit 

tunate, do all you can for the que vous soyez malheureux, faites 

welfare of your fellow-men. tout pour le bien de 1'humanite. 

1711. Adversative conjunctions are those which unite two 
propositions, showing opposition in the second in regard to the 
first ; they are 

Mais, but. 

The satisfaction which we derive La satisfaction qu'on tire de la 



vengeance ne dure qu'un mo- 
ment, mais celle que Ton tire de 
la clemence est eternelle. 



II dit vrai, cependant personne ne le 
croit. 



from revenge lasts but a mo- 
ment, but that which we derive 
from clemency is eternal. 

Cependant, however, yet. 

He tells the truth, yet nobody be- 
lieves him. 

Neanmoins, nevertheless. 

Marius was ill treated by fortune, Marius fut fort maltraite de la for- 
nevertheless he did not lose his tune, neanmoins il ne perdit pas 
courage. courage. 

Pourtant, however. 

Cicero, although a philosopher, was Ciceron, quoique grand philosophe, 
not, however, an enemy to flatte- n'etait pas pourtant ennemi des 
ry. louanges. 

Toutes fois, however, yet. 

This news is probable, yet nobody Cette nouvelle est probable, toutes 
believes it. fois personne n'y croit. 

Bien que, although. 

He is no fool, although he appears II n'est pas etourdi, bien qu v A le pa- 
to be so. raisse. 

1712. Restrictive conjunctions are those which restrict or 
limit, in some way, the sense of an idea or proposition ; as, 
Sinon, except, but. 

I have nothing to say, except that Je n'ai autre chose a dire, sinon 
I wish it. que je le veux. 

41 



482 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Si ce n'est que, except, but. 

I have nothing to tell you, except Je n'ai rien a vous dire, si ce rtest 
that it shall be so. qu r A en sera ainsi. 

Quoique, although. 

I loved you, although you never Je vous aimais, quoique vous ne 
believed it. l'ayez j'amais cru. 

Pour used instead of quoique, although. 

Although a man is religious, he is Pour etre devot, on n'en est pas 
not less a man. moins homme. 



Encore que, although. 

Although he is in disgrace, he is Encore qu y i[ soit disgracie, il n'en 
not the less proud forit. est pas moins tier. 

(This conjunction is now out of use.) 

A moins que or a moins de, unless. 

This affair will not terminate, un- Cette affaire ne finira pas, a moins 

less he comes. qu r il ne vienne. 

He could not treat him worse, un- II ne pouvait le traiter plus mal, a 

less he had struck him. moins de le battre. 

1713. Conditional conjunctions are those which unite two 
propositions together by expressing a supposition or a condi- 
tion ; as, 

Si, if. 

All is lost, if you do not come. Tout est perdu, si vous ne venez 

pas. 

Sinon, or else. 

Reform yourself, or else you will Corrigez-vous, sinon vous serez 
be detested. deteste. 

Quand, quand meme, quand bien meme, when, if, supposing. 

Francis the First would have but Francois Premier n'eut rendu que 

paid Charles the Fifth in his own la pareille a Charles Quint, 

coin, if he had caused him to be quand, quand mime, quand bien 

arrested when he passed through meme il l'eut fait arr£ter lors- 

France. qu'il passa par la France. 

A moins que, unless. 

I shall not go out, unless you call Je ne sortirai pas, a moins que vous 
for me. ne veniez me prendre. 

Pourvu que, suppose que, au cas que, en cas que, provided. 

You will extricate yourself out of Vous vous tirerez de cette difficul- 
this difficulty, provided that you te, pourvu que, suppose 1 que, &c, 
show firmness and courage. vous montriez de la fermete et 

du courage. 






CONJUNCTION. 483 

Bien entendu que, a condition que, a la charge que, pro- 
vided. 

You will succeed in this enterprise, Vous reussirez dans cette entre- 
provided you will follow, to the prise, bien entendu que, a condi- 
letter, the advice which I will Hon que, &c, vous suivrez a la 
give you. lettre les moyens que je vous 

donnerai. 

1714. Suspensive conjunctions are those which indicate un- 
certainty or suspense in the mind. 

Si, if, when. 

We never know if or when we are Nous ne savons jamais si nous 
truly loved. sornmes vraiment aimes. 

C'est a savoir si, it is for one to know if. 

You are feeding your imagination Vous nourrissez votre imagination 

on pleasing chimeras, but it re- de chimeres, mais c'est a savoir 

mains to be known if you will si vous reussirez jamais a les re- 

ever be so situated as to realize aliser. 
them. 

QuoiquHl en soit, be it as it may. 

Be that as it may, I will run the Quoiqu'il en soit, je veux en courir 
risk of it. le risque. 

1715. Concessive conjunctions are those which are used to 
express a mutual agreement on some subject ; as, 

A la verite, in fact. 

In fact the divisibility of matter is A la verite, la divisibilite de la ma- 
difficult to conceive, but it is not tiere est. difficile a. concevoir, 
the less certain on that account. mais elle n'en est pas moins cer- 

taine. 

A la bonne heure, it is very well. 

It is very well for us sometimes to A la bonne heure qu'on puisse quel- 

yield to circumstances, but it quefois ceder aux circonstances, 

ought never to be at the expense mais ce ne doit jamais etre aux 

of our honor. depens de son honneur. 

(No longer in use). 

Quand, quand meme, though, although. 

Although that should be true, what Quand, quand meme cela serait 
could you infer from it ? vrai, que pourriez-vous en con- 

clure? 

Non que, non pas que, not because. 

I avoid him, not because I fear him, Je Invite, non que or non pas que']e 
but that I may not be obliged to le craigne, mais pour ne pas etre 
act against my principles. oblige °de manquer a mes prin- 

cipes. 



484 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Quoique, encore que, although. 

Although he be poor, he is an hon- Quoique, encore git'il soitpauvre, il 
est man. est honnete homme. 

1716. Declarative conjunctions are those generally used to 
explain any thing ; as, 

Savoir, that is to say, as, viz., namely. 

The earth is divided into four great La terre est divisee en quatre 
parts, viz., Europe, Asia, Africa, grandes parties, savoir PEurope, 
and America. l'Asie, l'Afrique, et l'Amerique. 

Comme, comme par exemple, as, for instance. 

There are many effects, of which II y a bien des effets dont nous 
we know the causes, as, for in- connaissons les causes, comme, 
stance, those of the raising of comme par exemple celles de 
water in pumps. l'elevation de l'eau dans les 

pompes. 

C'est-a-dire, that is to say. 

Grammar, that is to say, the art La grammaire, c'est-a-dire l'art de 
of speaking and writing cor- parler et d'ecrire correctement, 
rectly, &c. &c. 

1717. Comparative conjunctions are those which are used 
to express a relation or similarity between two propositions ; as, 

Comme, ainsi, de meme, ainsi que, as. 

The destruction of Jerusalem took La destruction de Jerusalem est 
place, as the Saviour had an- arrivee comme, ainsi que, demeine 
nounced it. qiir, &c, Jesus Christ l'avait an- 

nonce. 

Jlussi bien que, as well as. 

We ought to listen to the poor as II faut ecouter le pauvre aussi bien 
well as to the rich. que le riche. 

Aussi peu que, aidant que, as little, as much as. 

Work as much, or as little as you Travaillez aidant, ou aussi peu que 
please. vous voudrez. 

Nonplus que, no more than. 

He does not listen any more than II n'ecoute non plus que si personne 
if nobody spoke to him. ne lui parlait. (Not used.) 



Ni plus, ni moins que, no worse, no better. 

r e have been treated in jail no Nous avons ete traites dans la p 
worse and no better than if we son ni plus ni moins que si nc 
had been great thieves. eussions ete de vils scelerats. 



CONJUNCTION. 



485 



Si 



as. 



. . que, so . . 

He is not so rich as he would like II n'est pas si riche gu'il voudrait 
to make people believe. bien qu'on le crut. 

En, used for comme, as. 
He lives like a lord. II vit en grand seigneur. 

1718. Augmentative and diminutive conjunctions are those 
which are employed to add to what has been said, or to take 
away from it ; as, 

For the purpose of augmenting : 

D'ailleurs, besides. 

Most of the rich without birth are La plupart des riches sans nais- 

proud and full of arrogance; sance, sont fiers et arrogants ; 

they are besides brutal and im- ils sont (Tailleurs brutaux etinso- 

pudent. lents. 

Outre que, besides that. (No longer used.) 

De plus, besides, moreover. 

I will tell you moreover that all Je vous dirai de plus que touts vos 
your friends are as well as they amis sontaussi bien que possible. 
can be. 

Au surplus, but. 

He has some faults certainly, but II a bien quelques defauts ; au sur- 
he is honest, and that is the most plus il est honnete homme, et 
essential. c'est l'essentiel. 

1719. For the purpose of retrenching : 
Au moins, du moins, at least. 



Le benefice qu'un jeune homme 
doit retirer du college, c'est au 
moins or du moins de savoir sa 
propre langue. 



The benefit which a young man 
ought to derive from college is, 
at least, to know his own lan- 
guage well. 

Pour le moins, at the least. 

We ought at least to know the II faut pour le moins connoitre les 

general principles of a language principesgeneraux d'une langue, 

before pretending to know it at avant de pretendre la savoir. 
all. 

Encore, also, besides, is employed for augmenting a sen- 
tence ; but when used in the sense of however, at least, it is 
employed for retrenching ; as, 

1st. It is not sufficient for a man to II ne suffit pas d'instruire, il faut 

instruct, he must also please. encore plaire. 

2d. However, if he would yield Encore s'il voulait se relacher sur 

that point, one might give up the ce point, on pourrait lui accorder 

rest. le reste. 
41* 



486 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



1720. Causative conjunctions are those which are used to 

express the reason why a thing is done ; as, 

Car, for. 

Do not trust to fortune, for she is Ne vous fiez pas a la fortune, car 
inconstant elle est inconstante. 

Comme, as, since. 

As you have only obeyed the die- Comme vousn'avez obei qu'a l'hon- 
tates of honor, be firm in your neur, soyez ferme dans l'infor- 
misfortune. tune. 

Parceque, because. 

Avoid laziness, because it is the Evitez l'oisivete, parcequ'elle est la 
mother of all vices. mere de tous les vices. 

We must not take par-ceque, a conjunction, in two words, 

par and ceque, for par-ce-que, in three words, the first of which, 

par, is a preposition, followed by the demonstrative pronoun 

ce, and the relative pronoun que ; as, 

I will read this book, because you Je lirai ce livre, parceque vous me 
tell me it is a good one, dites qu'il est bon, 

and 

I judge, by what you tell me, that Je juge par ce que vous me dites que 
the reading of this book cannot la lecture de ce livre doit etre 
but be very useful. tres utile. 

In the first sentence parceque is a real conjunction, but in 

the second, par-ce-que is a preposition, followed by its object. 

A cause que, attendu que, vu que, because. 

Ought he to be so vain, because his Faut-il qu'il soit si vain a cause que 
book has succeeded ? son ouvrage a reussi ? 

(This form of expression is now obsolete.) 
Women, do not glory so much in Femmes, ne vous glorifiez pas tant 



your beauty, because that quality 
does not last long. 



Puisque, since, because. 



de votre beaute, attendu que, vu 
que, cet avantage est d'une bien 
courte duree. 



Love only virtue, since that alone N'aimez que la vertu, puisqu'elle 
can make you happy. seule peut vous rendre heureux. 

Pourquoi, why. 

Why do you thus spend your time Pourquoi passez vous ainsi votre 
in doing nothing ? temps a ne rien faire ? 

D'ou vient que, why. 
Why do you remain idle ? 



D'ow vient que vous restez oisif ? 



CONJUNCTION. 487 

Afin que, afin de, pour, in order. 

Be quick, in order that I may go Soyez prompt, afin que je puisse sor- 
out. tir. 

We take a great deal of trouble to On se donne bien de la peine pour 
make a good book, and we pub- ecrire un bon livre, et on le met 
lish it in order to acquire fame. au jour afin eTacquerir de la repu- 

tation. 

Pour and afin de seem, at first, to have the same significa- 
tion, but with some attention it is easy to perceive that there 
must be some difference between them, from the manner in 
which they are used by good writers. The former, pour, ex- 
presses an effect which ought to be produced ; the latter, afin 
de, expresses an effect which we wish and hope to be pro- 
duced, as appears in the above examples. 

De peur que, de crainte que or de, for fear. 

Do not associate with the wicked, Ne frequentez pas les mechants, de 
for fear of being suspected to have crainte que or de peur qu'on ne 
the same feelings. vous soupconne de penser comme 

eux. 

Si que, so that. 

The French is a language so univer- Le Fran$ais est si universel, qu'il 

sally spoken, that there is no n'y a pas un pays au monde ou 

country in the world where a per- une personne qui le parle, ne pu- 

son cannot be understood who isse se faire entendre, 
speaks the language. 

1721. Conclusive conjunctions are those which are employed 
to draw a conclusion from a preceding proposition ; as, 
Or, done, but, now, then, therefore. 

We ought to love what is amiable ; II faut aimer ce qui est aimable ; or 
virtue is amiable, therefore we la vertu est aimable, done il faut 
must love it. aimer la vertu. 

Par corisequent, ainsi, e'est pourquoi, e'est pour cela que, 
therefore, thus, then. 

These people are corrupted and en- Ce peuple est corrompu et entiere- 

tirely weakened by indolence ; ment enerve par la mollesse, par 

therefore they will be easily con- consequent, ainsi, &c, il sera ai- 

quered. sement vaincu. 

There is a slight difference between the first two and the last 
two of these conjunctions. The first are more properly u^ed 
to express the conclusion derived from an argument, and the 
last to express the continuation of an event or fact. 



483 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Tellement que, so that. 

Your friend has drunk too much to- Votre ami a trop bu aujourd'hui, 
day, so that he is not aware of tellement qu'il ne sait plus ce qu'il 
what he says. dit. 

De sorie que, en sorte que, de maniere que, so that, in so 
much that, that, in such manner that. 

Night came, so that he was obliged La nuit vint, de sorte qu'il fut oblige 

to retire. de se retirer. 

See that every thing be ready. Faites en sorte que tout soit pret. 

Do things so that everybody may be Faites les choses de maniere que tout 

contented. le monde soit content. 

1722. Conjunctions of time and order me those which are 
used to connect the discourse by circumstances of time or 
order. 

Dans le temps que, pendant que, durant que, tandis que, 
when, at the time when, whilst. 

Rome was happy at the time when Rome etait heureuse dans le temps 
she had consuls. qu'elle avait des consuls. 

Tant que, as long as, whilst. 

She used to do good whilst she Elle a fait le bienftm^w'ellea vecu. 
lived. 

Avant que, before. 

They used the bark of trees to On se servaitd'ecorcesd'arbrespour 
write upon before paper was in ecrire avant que le papier ne fut 
use. invente. 

Depuis que, since. 

Many events have taken place since II s'est passe bien des evenements 
we have seen each other. depuis que nous ne nous sommes 

vus. 

Des que, aussitot que, as soon as. 

Do write to me, as soon as you get Ecrivez-moi dhs que, aussitdt que vous 
the documents I want. aurez les documents dontj'ai be- 

soin. 

A peine, hardly. 

We had hardly finished when he A peine avions nous fini quand il en- 
came in. tra. 

Apres que, after. 

After he had done speaking, the as- Aprte #w'il eut fini de parler, Pas- 
sembly separated. semblee se se*para. 



CONJUNCTION. 489 

Cependant, any how, however. 

He is one of those ugly and fas- C'est un de ces pedants tristes et 
tidious pedants who have no other hargneux qui n ? ont d'autre esprit 
mind besides that which they get que celui qu'ils trouvent dans les 
from books ; nevertheless, he is livres, et cependant on le re- 
sought after. cherche. 

Enfin, d la Jin, in fine. 

In fine,, the cause of religion, honor, En Jin, a la Jin, la cause de la reli- 
and humanity will prevail. gion, de l'honneur, et de l'hu- 

raanite triomphera. 

1723. Transitive conjunctions are those which serve to pass 
from one circumstance to another ; as, 

Or, then ; en effet, therefore ; au reste, however ; apropos, 

by the by ; apres tout, after all. 

Then, all having been settled, &c. Or, toutes choses ayant ete regu- 

lees, &c. 
By the by, I want to tell you, &c. Apropos, je vous dirai, &c. 

These conjunctions produce a bad effect in a discourse ; 
they render it heavy, and good writers make as little use of 
them as possible ; transitions must take place in the ideas 
rather than in the words. 

1724. We ought to remark here, that languages are very 
deficient as to the signification of words. In French, a word 
may belong not only to several different classes of words, but 
even to several classes of the same kind. Si, comme, encore 
offer a proof of this deficiency ; si is sometimes an adverb, 
sometimes a conjunction, and, as a conjunction, is either con- 
ditional, dubitative, comparative, &c. Comme and encore are 
adverbs and conjunctions of several sorts. 

Usage, practice, and reading good authors are the only 
means of mastering these difficulties, which are beyond the 
reach of a grammar or a teacher. 



THE USE AND DIFFERENT MODES OF EMPLOYING THE 
CONJUNCTION que, THAT. 

1725. We employ, most frequently, the conjunction que to 

connect two verbs together ; as, 

I believe that I see him. Je crois que je le vois. 

I doubt that he will come. Je doute jw'il vienne. 



490 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

This conjunction is preceded by a verb and followed by an- 
other verb, which, as we shall see hereafter, is sometimes used 
in the indicative and sometimes in the subjunctive mood. 
The conjunction que is always easily distinguishable from the 
relative or absolute pronoun que. It is a pronoun, when it 
may be turned by lequel, laquelle, the which, or by quelque 
chose, qudle chose, something, what thing ; as, 

God, whom Hove. Dieu, que or lequel j'aime. 

What do you see yonder ? Que or quelle chose voyez-vous la 

has. 

But it is always a conjunction, when this change cannot take 
place ; as, 

I believe that the soul is immortal. Je crois que l'ame est immortelle. 

1726. Rule. In phrases where there are several proposi- 
tions connected by que, this word ought to be repeated before 
each one of these propositions ; as, 

When I think that Christians do not Quand je considere que les Chre- 
die altogether, that they only tiens ne meurent point ; ^w'ils ne 
suffer a change of life, that the font que changer de vie ; que 
apostle warns us not to weep over l'apotre nous avertit de ne pas 
those who are sleeping in death, pleurer ceux qui dorment dans le 
as if hope were not left to us; that sommeil de la mort, comme si 
faith teaches us that the church of nous n'avions pas d'esperance ; 
heaven and earth are but one sin- que la foi nous apprend que l'e- 
gle body ; that we belong to the glise du ciel et celle de la terre ne 
Almighty, whether we are alive sont jM'unmerae corps ; que nous 
or dead ; when I think, also, that apporterons au Seigneur, soit que 
she, whose death we regret, is liv- nous vivions, soit que nous moil- 
ing in God, can I believe that we rions ; quand je considere, dis-je, 
have lost her? que celle dont nous regrettons la 

mort est vivante en Dieu, puis-je 
croire que nous l'ayons perdue ? 
(Flechier.) 

1727. But, although this rule is absolute, we must avoid its 
application in sentences similar to the preceding, the repetition 
of the word que rendering the style heavy and disagreeable to 
the ear ; it is requisite, then, to change the form of the sen- 
tence so as to render unnecessary the repetition of the same 
word. We shall, as an example, alter the form of the above 
sentence, and suppress que ; it will be easily seen, by those 
whose ear is familiarized to the language, how much more pleas- 
antly it will sound after this change. 



CONJUNCTION. 491 

Christians ourselves, we are aware Chretiens nous memes, nous ne 

that Christians do not die ; they l'ignorons pas, les Chretiens ne 

only change their life for another; meurent point ; ils ne sont que 

and the apostle warns us not to changer de vie ; et l'apotre nous 

weep over those who sleep the avertit de ne pas pleurer ceux 

sleep of death, as if we had qui dorment dans le sommeil de 

no hope; and besides, does not la mort ; comme si nous n'avi- 

faith teach us that the church of ons pas d'esperance ! etd'ailleurs 

heaven and that of earth are but la foi ne nous apprend elle pas, 

the same body ? Ah ! since she, que l'eglise du ciel et celle de la 

whose death we regret, is living terre ne sont qu'un meme corps ? 

in God, it is not permitted to us Ah! quand celle dont nous pleu- 

to believe that we have really lost rons la mort est vivante devant 

her. Dieu, il ne nous est pas permis de 

croire que nous l'ayons perdue. 

1728. Let us see what are the other uses of the conjunction 
que. It is used : 

1st. To compare ; as, 

Asia is larger than Europe. L'Asie est plus grande que 1'Eu- 

rope. 

1729. 2d. To restrict negative sentences, and then it means 
only ; as, 

These ideas serve only to torment Ces idees ne servent <?w'a nous tour- 

us. menter. 

One is happy only far from the On n'est heureux^weloin dumonde. 

world. 

1730. Remarlc. Ne que is sometimes used for ne Hen, 
nothing, as in the following expressions : 

I have nothing to do here, Je n'ai que faire ici, 

instead of, 

Je n'ai rien a faire ici. 

I have no want of him. Je n'ai que faire de lui. 

It is not necessary for me to tell you. Je n'ai que faire de vous dire. 

1731. Ne que, used with some tenses of the verb 

faire, and followed by the preposition de, of, and an infinitive, 
designates an action which is just passed ; as, 

He is just gone. II nefait que de partir. 

The action of being gone is past, although quite recently ; but 
without the preposition de, of, ne que expresses a hab- 
it ; as, 
He does nothing else but play. II nefait que jouer. 

1732. 3d. To express a wish, an order, &c, and then 



492 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

there is a verb which is understood, and which ought to pre- 
cede it ; as, 

Let him go, Qw'il s'en aille, 

that is to say, 

I wish him to go. Je desire qu 'il s'en aille, or je veux, 

fordonne, je souhaite qui\ s'en 
aille. 

The imperative mood, used in the third person singular and 
plural, is actually an ellipsis. 

1733. Qite is used instead of afin que after an imperative ; 

as, 

Approach, that I may speak to you. Approchez, que (afin que) je vous 

parle. 

1734. And instead of pour que after an interrogation ; as, 

Who are you, that you think you Qui etes-vous done, que vous ayez 
have a right to insult me ? le droit de m'insulter ? 

1735. It is also used instead of a moins que, avant que, sans 
que ; as, 

This will not cease unless he comes. Cela ne finira pas (a moins que) 

^w'il ne vienne. 
I shall not finish before he comes. Je ne finirai pas (avant que) jw'il ne 

soit venu. 
He cannot go out without catching II ne peut sortir qu J i\ (sans qu'il) ne 
a cold. s'enrhume. 

1736. Instead of des que, aussitot que, as soon as, si, if : 

As soon as, or if, he makes the Qw'il fasse la moindre faute, et il 
smallest fault, he is sure to be est sur d'etre puni. 
punished. 

1737. Instead of quoique, although, soit que, whether : 

Although he has much learning, he Tout savant qu , i\ est, il n'a pu me 

could not answer me. repondre. 

Whether he wishes or not, it mat- Qw'il veuille ou qu'ii ne veuillepas, 

ters but little. peu m'importe. 

1738. Instead of depuis que, after il y a, there is. 

I have not seen him for two years. II y a deux ans que (depuis que) je 

ne l'ai vu. 

1739. Instead of jusqu'a ce que, until : 

Wait until he comes, Attendez (jusqu'a ce que) yw'il 

vienne. 



CONJUNCTION. 493 

1740. Instead of et cependant, that : 

If misers should have all the riches Les avares auraient tout Tor du 
in the world, they would not be monde <?w'ils n'en seraient pas 
better satisfied for it. plus satisfaits. 

1741. Instead of puis que, since, after an interrogation : 

Are the bottles broken, that they do Les bouteilles sont elles cassees, 

not bring any ? que l'on n'en apporte point ? 

What ails you, that you do not eat Qu'avez-vous, que vous ne mangez 

any thing ? point ! 

1742. Instead of pourquoi, why : 

Why does he not amend himself? Que ne se corrige-t-il ? 

1743. This expression is only used in interrogative sen- 
tences, where the second negation is not employed ; with ne 
pas, que is an absolute pronoun : as, 

What has he not done in order to Que n^-t-iipas fait pour re ussir? 
succeed ? 

1744. Instead of et, when followed by si, if: as, 
If you tell me. Que si vous me dites. 

This expression belongs rather to the familiar style ; but it 
is very energetic. 

1745. Instead of comme and parceque, as, because : 

Full as he was of his own preju- Rempli jw'il etait de prejuges, il ne 
dices, he would never confess his voulut jamais convenir de ses 
errors on any subject. torts. 

1746. Instead of combien, how. In this acceptation que 

expresses admiration, astonishment, repugnance, indignation, 

&c. : as, 

How good God is ! Que Dieu est bon ! 

How troublesome you are ! Que vous etes importun ! 

How I hate him ! Que je le hais ! &c. 

1747. In fine, instead of comme, lorsque, parceque, puisque, 
quand, quoique, si, &c, when we join to propositions begin- 
ning with these words others beginning with et, and, both 
being under the same regimen : as, 

If men were wise, and would follow Si les hommes etaient sages, et 

the dictates of reason, they would <^'ils voulussent suivre les lu- 

avoid much trouble. mieres de leur raison, ils s'evite- 

raient bien des chagrins. 

When one has the disposition and Quand on a des dispositions et que 

the will to study, one makes Ton veut etudier, on fait de ra- 

rapid progress. pides progres. 

42 



494 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

1748. Remark. This elegance of style is a law among 
good writers, and must be observed in all similar cases. 

In regard to the other cases, a thorough knowledge of the 
language, and a long practice, will alone enable a foreigner to 
know exactly when he must apply them. 



OF THE REGIMEN OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

1749. Conjunctions unite sentences together, and govern 
the following verbs either in the infinitive, the indicative, or 
the subjunctive mood. 



Of Conjunctions governing the Infinitive Mood, 

1750. There are two sorts of conjunctions governing the 
infinitive. 

1st. Those which differ from prepositions only in being 
followed by a verb, such as apres, after, pour, for, in order, 
jusqu'a, until, &c. 

We must rest, after having been at II faut se reposer aprks avoir tra- 

work. vaille. 

I work to earn my living. Je travaille pour gagner ma vie. 

He is so avaricious that he does not II est avare jusqu'a se refuser le ne- 

allow himself the necessaries of cessaire. 

life. 

He works without taking the least II travaille sans prendre le moindre 

repose. repos. 

We ought to remark, that between these conjunctions and 
the verbs we can place only the objective pronouns, the negation 
we, or ne pas, and the adverb y : as, 

He has done that in order not to II n'a fait cela que pour ne pas hi 
displease him. deplaire. 

1751. 2d. All those which are terminated by de, such as 
faute de, for want of, de peur de, de crainte de, for fear of, au 
lieu de, instead of, loin de, far from, plutot que de, rather 
than, &c. 

If I apply myself so much to study, Si je m'applique autant a l'e'tudej 
it is in order to surpass you. c'est ajin de vous surpasser. 



CONJUNCTION. 495 

He seeks her, instead of running II la recherche au lieu de la fuir. 

from her. 

Far from desponding, you must in- Loin de vous dtcourager, vous devez 

crease your efforts. redoubler d'ardeur. 

1752. These conjunctions, with an infinitive following, form, 
as we see by the above examples, incidental propositions, sub- 
ject to the control of the first sentence, which is always the 
principal. 

This mode of expression has much force, and ought to be 
preferred to any other, when there can be no ambiguity ; and 
there will never be any ambiguity, if the following rule is 
properly attended to. 

1753. Rule. Conjunctions can be used with an infinitive, 
only when the infinitive relates to the nominative of the first 
verb : as, 

We cannot speak against the truth Nous ne pouvons trahir la verite sans 

without rendering ourselves con- nous rendre meprisables. 
temptible. 

Avoid gambling, for fear of acquir- Evitez le jeu de peur d' y prendre 

ing a taste for it. gout. 

Napoleon did not reign long enough Napoleon ne regna pas assez long- 
to accomplish entirely his vast terns pour accomplir ses vastes pro- 
projects, jets. 

In these sentences the infinitive could be replaced by the 
subjunctive, and the verbs rendre, prendre, accomplir, should 
then have the same nominative as that of the principal prop- 
osition : as, 

Nous ne pouvons trahir la verite* sans que nous nous rendions meprisa- 
bles. 

Evitez le jeu de peur que vous n'y preniez gout. 

NapoUon ne regna pas assez long terns pour quHl accomplit ses vastes pro- 
jets. 

1754. Sometimes, however, the second verb may be used 
in the infinitive, although it relates to the object of the first 
instead of its nominative, when no ambiguity can arise from 
it : as, 

I advise you to frequent good com- Je vous conseille de frequenter la 
pany, and to keep from the bad. bonne compagnie, et d'fviter la 

mauvaise. 

In this sentence, the two verbs in the infinitive, frequenter 
and eviter, relate to the object, vous, instead of the nominative, 



496 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Je, but the sense is clear, and admits of the general rule ; the 
same remark applies to the following sentence : 

He solicits, and even presses me to II me sollicite, et me presse m§me 
go and see him. dialler le voir. 

1755. But we could not say : 

The reign of Napoleon was not long Le regne de NapoUon ne fut pas 
enough to put the last finish to assez long pour mettre la derniere 
his vast projects. main a ses vastes projets. 

There is an ambiguity in the sentence ; the mind does not 
see, at once, which has to put the last finish, Napoleon or the 
reign, and it arises from the fact, that the infinitive relates to 
the object of the first verb, instead of the nominative ; it ought 
to be expressed as follows : 

Le regne de NapoUon ne fut pas assez long pour que celui-oi mit la der- 
niere main a ses vastes projets. 

Nor can we say, either : 

What have I done, that you should Qu'ai-je Mt pour venir m'insulter > 
insult me ? 

because venir relates to something vague ; we do not see who 

has to come and insult ; it ought to be : 

Qu'ai-je done fait pour que vous veniez m'insulter. 

1756. Rule 2d. We prefer the indicative or subjunctive 
mood to the infinitive, when we wish to avoid the repetition 
of the word de, either because the meaning of this word is 
changed, or because its repetition would render the style heavy, 
and disagreeable to the ear : as, 

Aristippus ordered his companions Aristippe chargea ses compagnons 

to tell his fellow-citizens, on his de dire, de sa part, a ses conci- 

part, to think in time to get toyens de songer de bonne heure 

ready fur the coming struggle. a se preparer a la lutte. 

This sentence, thus constructed, is intolerable to the ear ; 
it ought to be written : 

Aristippe chargea ses compagnons de dire, de sa part, a ses concitoyens 
quHls songedssent de bonne heure a se preparer a la lutte. 

We also use the indicative instead of the infinitive, merely 

for the sake of harmony ; as in this case : 

I am sure, with time and firmness, Je suis sur, avec de la patience et 
to succeed in curing him. de la fermete que je parviendrai a 

le guerir (instead of deparvenir). 



CONJUNCTION. 497 



Of Conjunctions governing the Indicative Mood. 

1757. The conjunctions which govern the indicative mood 
after them, are the following : 

Bien entendu que, De raeme que, 

A la charge que, Aussi bien que, 

Ainsi que, Non plus que, 

Autant que, Parce que, 

Outre que, Attendu que, 

A cause que, Puisque, 

Vu que, Lorsque, 

C'est pour cela que, Pendant que, 

Dans le temps que, Durant que, 

Tandis que, Depuis que, 

Tant que, Aussitot que, 

Des que, A mesure que, 

A ce que, Peut-etre que, 
A condition que, 

To which we may add the following : 

Si, Quand, 

Comme si, Pourquoi, &c. 

Comme, 

1 agree to it, provided you will be J'y consens, A condition que vous 

one of the party. serez de la partie. 

One must work as much as one can. II faut travailler autant jw'on le 

peut. 

You will take some other measures, Vous prendrez d'autres mesures, si 

if you are prudent. vous Ues prudent. 

When a man is wise, he avoids Quand on est sage, on e*vite le dan- 
danger, ger, &c. 

1758. All these conjunctions govern the indicative mood 
because they are always preceded by verbs which express 
affirmation in a direct, positive, and independent manner. 

They do not present any difficulty. However, there are 
six others, which require particular attention, because they 
sometimes govern the indicative mood, sometimes the subjunc- 
tive : they are 

Sinon que, Tellement que, 

En sorte que, De sorte que, 

Si ce n'est que, De maniere que, 

This difficulty will be avoided by observing the following 
rules. 

1759. We have seen, in treating of verbs, that the verb of 
the incidental proposition ought to be in the indicative mood, 

42* 



498 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



when the verb of the principal proposition expresses affirma* 
tion in a direct, positive, and independent manner ; but it ought 
to be used in the subjunctive, when the verb of the principal 
proposition expresses doubt, surprise, admiration, uncertainty, 
fear, &c, that is to say, an impulse of the mind. It is ac- 
cording to this rule, that these six conjunctions govern the 
indicative or subjunctive mood ; thus, we should say, with the 
indicative : 

He has behaved so as to deserve the II s'est conduit de maniere, or de 
respect of honest people. telle sorte, qu'il a merite l'estime 

des honnetes gens. 

He answered nothing, but that he I] ne repondit rien, sinon tfw'il ne le 
would not do it. voulait pas. 

and with the subjunctive : 

You must behave so as to deserve Comportez vous de maniere or de 
the respect of honest people. telle sorte que vous meritiez l'estime 

des honnetes gens. 

I only fear that he may not succeed Je ne crains rien, sinon <?w'il ne 
as soon as he thinks. reussisse pas aussitot qu'il le croit. 

1760. Remark. We have said, that que is employed instead 
of comme, parceque, lorsque, puis que, quand, quoique, si, &c, 
when propositions, beginning with these words, are followed 
by others, under the same regimen, and preceded by the con- 
junction et, and. In such cases, the conjunction que governs 
the indicative, when taking the place of quand, lorsque, comme, 
pourquoi, peut-etre, and parceque ; as, 

When we are young, and do not Lorsqu'on est jeune et gu'on ne se 
despond, we may still hope for laisse pas abattre par 1'adversite, 
happy days. on peut se protnettre encore un 

avenir heureux. 

1761. But if que is used instead of si, quoique, &c, it gov- 
erns the subjunctive ; as, 

If we are no longer young, and Si l'on est deja. sur le retour, et 
have no fortitude in adversity, qvfon soit sans Courage dans 
we ought to expect a sorrowful 1'adversite, on doit s'attendre a 
and unhappy old age. une vieillesse triste et malhe- 

reuse. 



CONJUNCTION. 



499 



Of Conjunctions governing the Subjunctive. 



1762. Conjunctions which govern the following verb in the 

subjunctive mood are : 

Afin que, a moins que, avant que, 

Au cas que, en cas que, mal^re que, 

Bien que, encore que, quoique, 

De peur que, de crainte que, jusqu'a ce que, 

Parce que, suppose que, pour que, 

Pourvu que, quel que, quelque, 

Quoique, sans que, soit que, 

and a few others, but very little used. Thus, we ought to 
say : 

Employ well the time of your youth, 
so that you may one day fulfil 
the duties of your station. 

Although ambition is a vice, it is 

nevertheless the foundation of 

many virtues. 
However well informed they may 

be, they do not know the cause 

of this marvellous effect. 



Employez bien le temps de votre 
jeunesse, afin que vous puissiez 
un jour remplir les devoirs de vo- 
tre etat. 

Encore que, bien que, quoique > l'am- 
bition soit un vice, elle est nean- 
moins la base de bien des vertus. 

Quelque bien informes qiCWs soient, 
ils ne connaissent pas la cause 
de cet eft'et merveilleux. 



There is no difficulty with these conjunctions ; the only care 
to be taken is, not to use them except with the verb in the 
subjunctive. 

Before we finish what we have to say on conjunctions, we 
will add a few words in respect to the place which the inciden- 
tal propositions, formed with their assistance, ought to occupy. 

1763. Rule. When a sentence is composed of two prop- 
ositions, united by a conjunction, harmony and clearness require, 
generally, that the shortest be placed first ; as, 

When passions leave us, we vainly Quand les passions nous quittent, 

flatter ourselves that we leave nous nous flattons en vain que 

them. c'est nous qui les quittons. 

One is not to be pitied, if he allows On n'est point a plaindre quand, au 

his mind to be taken up with defaut de biens reels, on trouve 

chimeras instead of things which le moyen de s'occuper de chi- 

have a real value. meres. 

If these sentences were constructed in the other way, there 
would be no harmony, and no clearness, at least in the last 
proposition. This fault in constructing sentences will appear 
clearly in the next example : 



500 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



We could not reconcile with the On ne peut concilier avec la justice 

justice of God, the sight of vir- de Dieu le spectacle de la vertu 

tue languishing in irons, while dans les fers, tandis que le vice 

vice is permitted on the throne, est sur le trone, sans admettre 

without admitting a future life. une autre vie. 



OF INTERJECTIONS. 



1764. The word interjection is formed from the Latin words 
inter, between, among, and jacere, to throw. We, in fact, call 
interjections indeclinable words, placed between other words, 
according to passionate impulses of the soul. 

We will not indicate what is the interjection which ought to 
express each particular condition of the soul. The mind may 
need a master to know how to enunciate with clearness and pre- 
cision the ideas which it wishes to combine ; but the heart has 
no need of any, to depict, with truth, the pleasure which it en- 
joys, or the sorrow which weighs upon it. 

1765. The number of interjections ought to be proportionate 
to that of the various feelings which the soul may experience ; 
but sometimes opposite feelings are expressed by the same 
word ; because interjections, not expressing an idea, but only a 
cry of nature, depend, as to their signification, upon the inflec- 
tion of the voice, and the gesture which accompanies them. 
However, there are some of these words which are principally 
adapted to express some of the precise passions of the heart. 

1766. To express pain, grief, we use : Me ! ay ! oh ! ah ! 

Ah! ay ! oh ! ah ! Helas ! alas ! Oufl o, pho ! Mon Dieu! 

good God ! as, 

Ah ! what have I not suffered since Ah ! que n'ai je pas souffert depuis 

I saw you last ! que je ne vous ai vu ! 

Pho ! What a hot day ! Ouf! Quelle chaleur ! 

1767. To express joy and desire : Ah! ah ! Bon! good ! 
as, 

Ah! how glad I am to see you Ah! que je suis aise de vous re- 



again 



voir! 



1768. To express fear : He! ah ! 01 alas ! as, 

Alas ! what will become of us ? Ah ! qu'allons nous devenir ? 
O ! what have I done ? He ! qu'ai-je fait f 



INTERJECTION. 501 

1769. To express hatred, contempt, and disgust : Fi, fi 

done! fy, fy upon ! pugh ! &c, as, 

Fy ! the villain! fy, for good fare ! Fi! le vilain ! fi de la bonne 

chere ! 
Fy ! What are you about ? Fi done ! Y pensez-vous ? 

1770. For expressing derision : Oh! eh ! zest ! O ! pshaw ! 
straw ! nonsense ! 

Oh ! what a queer man ! he boasts Oh ! le plaisant homme ! il se vante 
of being in favor with the great! d'etre bien aupres des grands ! 
nonsense ! ztst ! 

1771. To express consent : 
Volontiers, soit ! well ! let it be so ! 

Well ! I consent to it. Soit, voluntiers j'y consens. 

1772. To express admiration : Oh! O ! 

O ! how beautiful that is ! Oh ! que e'est beau ! 

1773. To express surprise: Oh! O! Bon Dieu ! good 

God ! Misericorde ! bless me ! mercy upon me ! &c. 

O ! oh! I did not think of that! Oh! oh! je n'y prenais pas garde! 
Good God ! ought we to have ex- Bon Dieu! devions nous nous at- 
pected such a thing ? , tendre a cela ? 

1774. The Academy remarks, that the interjection, 0! 
serves to express several impulses of the soul, and most gram- 
marians agree with the Academy in this respect ; but we think 
we can give a better idea of this word, by saying, that it ex- 
presses an exclamation, and always supposes that we address 
somebody or something ; it is, besides, almost always followed 
by a noun ; as, 

O! ashes of a husband! O! Tro- O! cendres d'unepoux! O! Troy- 

jans ! O ! father ! ens ! O ! mon pere ! 

O! how vain are the projects O! de quels vains projets cette vie 

which this life is made up of! est tissue ! 

In this last example, O ! is not followed by any noun, but 

there is one understood ; it is as if we said : 

O, mortals ! O, my friends ! O, my O, mortels ! O, mes amis ! O, mon 
God ! Dieu ! 

1775. To express encouragement: Ca ! now! Jlllons ! 

well ! Courage ! courage ! Oh, pa ! what now ! Tenez ferme ! 

hold on, &c. 

Courage, my friends ! Courage, mes amis ! 

Well, courage! go ahead, my good Allons, ferme ! poussez, mes bons 
friends of the court. amis dc cour. 



502 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

1776. To warn: Gare ! take care! Hola! holla! Ho, 

hoa! ho there ! Hem ! hem ! so ho ! Tout beau ! softly ! Gare 

Veau ! take care below ! &c. 

Take care ! you will fall. Gare ! vous allez tomber. 

Hem, hem, come here. Hem, hem, venez ici. 

1777. To call : Hold! holla ! He ! O ! &c. 

Holla ! is there any one at home ? Hola ! y-a-t-il quelqu'un ? 
O ! here, I want to speak to you. He ! ecoutez que je vous dise. 

1778. To silence: Chut ! hush! Paix ! silence! St! 
peace, hush. 

Hush ! do not come nearer. Chut ! n'approchez pas davantage. 

Interjections have no particular place in the discourse ; they 
are put according as the feelings require them ; the only care 
is, not to use them between two words which must never be 
separated by any other word ; as between the nominative and 
the verb, between the noun and the adjective which modifies 
it. What may be added to these remarks belongs to taste 
and habit, and not to a grammar. 



GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION. 



1779. Grammatical construction is the order which the 
genius of the language has established for the use of the parts 
of speech in constructing sentences. 

A sentence may be expositive, interrogative, or imperative. 

A sentence, when expositive, may be affirmative, or nega- 
tive. 



CONSTRUCTION OF AFFIRMATIVE SENTENCES. 

1780. An affirmative sentence maybe simple or compound. 
It is simple, when it has but one subject and one attribute : as, 

God is just. Dieu est bon. 

Virtue is amiable. La vertu est aimable. 

A sentence may be compound in several ways ; by having 
several subjects and one attribute ; by having one subject and 
several attributes ; or by having several subjects and several 
attributes. 

1781. When a sentence is compound in respect to the sub- 
ject, that sentence may be divided into as many simple prop- 
ositions as there are simple ideas in the subject, and each of 
these simple propositions will have different subjects with the 
same attribute ; thus, in the following sentence : 

Energy of character, the habit of L'energie du caractere, l'habitude 

privations, and constancy in mis- des privations, et la Constance 

fortune, are very useful for our dans les soufTrances, sont tres 

happiness, utiles a notre bonheur, 

we find the three simple propositions : 



504 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

L'energie da caractere est tres utile a notre bonheur, 

L'habitude des privations est tres utile a notre bonheur, 

La Constance dans les souffrances est tre3 utile a notre bonheur. 

1782. When a sentence is compound in respect to the attri- 
bute, it may be decomposed into as many simple propositions 
as there are simple ideas in the attribute, and each of these 
simple propositions will have the same subject, with a different 
attribute. Thus, in the following sentence : 

Most men are egotists, and judge La plupart des hommes sont ego- 
from appearances, istes, et jugentsurlesapparences, 

there are two propositions : 

La plupart des hommes sont egoistes, 

La plupart des hommes jugent sur les apparences. 

1783. When a sentence is compound in respect to the at- 
tribute and the subject, it may be decomposed : 

1st. Into as many propositions, with the same attribute, as 
there are simple ideas in the compound subject. 

2d. Each of these elementary propositions may be decom- 
posed into as many simple propositions as there are simple 
ideas in the compound attribute ; as for instance : 

Pride and dissipation destroy the L'orgueil et la dissipation detruisent 

sweetest enjoyments of the heart, les plus douces jouissances du 

they are an obstacle to our in- cceur, sont un obstacle a notre 

struction, and expose us to many instruction, et nous exposent a 

inconsiderate actions. bien des demarches inconsiderees. 

By decomposing, first, the subject, we have the two follow- 
ing propositions, with the compound attribute : 

L'orgueil detruit les plus douces jouissances du cceur, est un obstacle a 

notre instruction, et nous expose a bien des demarches inconsiderees. 
La dissipation detruit, &c. 

By decomposing, now, the attribute of each of these two 
elementary propositions, we have the six following : 

L'orgueil detruit les plus douces jouissances du cceur. 

L'orgueil est un obstacle a notre instruction. 

L'orgueil nous expose a bien des demarches inconsiderees. 

La dissipation detruit, &c. 

La dissipation est un obstacle, &c. 

La dissipation nous expose, &c. 

1784. As every sentence, whatever its composition, may 
be decomposed in the same manner, we have now to 



GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION. 505 

examine what should be the arrangement of words in a simple 
proposition used affirmatively : 

1st. The subject, modified or not by qualifications, or an 
incidental proposition. 

2d. The verb. 

3d. The adverb ; (in compound tenses the adverb is placed 
between the auxiliary and the past participle.) 

4th. The regimen, or regimens, if there are several : as, 

God, who is good, governs the world with wisdom. 

Dieu, qui est bon, gouverne sagement le monde. 

subject, incidental proposition. verb. adverb. regimen. 

A good prince deserves the love of his subjects. 
Un bon prince merite V amour de ses sujets. 

subject qualified, verb. regimen. 

If we wish to add to this idea, that such prince deserves also 
the esteem of other nations, with the help of the conjunction 
et, and, we add this idea to the first, and these two simple 
propositions make the compound : 
Un bon prince merite l'amour de ses sujets et l'estime des autres nations. 

We find, here, the application of what we have said, in treat- 
ing of conjunctions ; that is to say, that their functions consist 
in uniting isolated propositions ; without their assistance the 
language would be unintelligible, from the necessity of repe- 
titions, or the want of means to express the connexion of our 
ideas. 

1785. But when two propositions in a sentence are united 
by a conjunction, which of the two propositions must stand 
first ? 

1st. If the two propositions are of the same extent, the im- 
pulse of the mind alone should be followed : as, 

One is not to be pitied when he is On n'est point a plaindre quand on 
loved. est aime. 

or, 

Quand on est aime, on n'est point a plaindre. 

1786. 2d. If the two propositions are not of the same 

extent, harmony and perspicuity generally require the shortest 

to be placed first : as, 

We are not to be pitied, when, in- On n'est point a plaindre, quand, 

stead of hearing the voice of rea- au lieu d'ecouter la voix de la 

son, we abandon ourselves to our raison, on s'abandonne a ses mau- 

evil passions. vais penchants. 

43 



506 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

1787. When, instead of two propositions, there are several, 
their assemblage is called a period. 

Periods, in order to be clear, require the shortest propo- 
sitions to be placed first, as in the following example, taken 
from Flechier : 

N'attendez pas, Messieurs, 
Que j'ouvre une scene tragique; 

Que je represente ce grand homme etendu sur ses propres trophees ; 
Que je decouvre ce corps pale et sanglant, aupres duquel fume encore la 

foudre qui l'a frappe ; 
Que je fasse crier son sang comme celui d'Abel, et que j'expose a vos 

yeux les images de la religion et de la patrie eploree. 

Four propositions are the largest number which can be 
admitted by a good style, consistently with clearness and 
harmony. 

1788. A negative sentence differs from an affirmative in the 
use of the two negative words, ne and pas, properly employed, 
as we have already stated in the article on adverbs. 



CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES USED INTERROGATIVELY. 

1789. A sentence is said to be interrogative, when used to 
ask a question. 

An interrogative sentence may be positive or negative. A 
sentence which is interrogative and positive may have for its 
nominative, either 

1st. A noun. 

2d. A personal pronoun. 

3d. An absolute pronoun. 

4th. A demonstrative pronoun. 

5th. An interrogative adverb. 

1790. 1st. When the nominative oi an interrogative sen- 
tence, used positively, is a noun, the sentence begins with that 
noun, then the verb, followed by a personal pronoun, of the 
same number and gender as the nominative, the other parts of 
speech following the same order as in affirmative sentences : as. 

Is the river higher to-day than it La riviere est elle plus haute au- 
was yesterday ? jourd'hui qu'hier ? 



GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION. 507 

1791. 2d. When the nominative of the verb, on the con- 
trary, is a personal pronoun, the verb, followed by that pro- 
noun, begins the sentence : as, 

Do you like to study as well as to Aimez-vous 1 'etude autant que le 
play ? jeu ? 

When the verb is reflective, the reflective pronoun begins 
the sentence, then the verb, followed by the personal pronoun, 
as above : as, 

Have you always behaved so as to Vous etes-vous toujours conduit de 
command the respect of others ? maniere a. commander le respect 

d'autrui ? 

1792. 3d. When the nominative is an absolute pronoun, 
the interrogation may be made in two different ways ; if the 
absolute pronoun is employed simply with the verb, that pro- 
noun begins the sentence, and the verb which follows it is still 
followed by its nominative : as, 

What does your father say ? Que dit votre pere ? 

What do you say ? Que dites-vous ? 

Whom do you love ? Qui aimez-vous ? 

What are you thinking about? A quoi pensez-vous ? 

Which of these two horses do you Lequel preferez-vous de ces deux 

prefer ? chevaux ? 

Where do you go ? Whence do you Ou allez-vous ? D'oU venez-vous ? 

come ? 

When, instead of the simple absolute pronoun, we use, in 
asking a question, the compound expression, qui est-ce qui 9 
who is it who ? qui est-ce que 9 who is it whom ? qu' est-ce que, 
what is it that ? the interrogation being included in these com- 
pound expressions, the following verb is used affirmatively, 
and is preceded by its nominative : as, 
Who has told you that ? Qui est-ce qui vous a dit cela ? 

In this sentence, the interrogation is made by qui est-ce ; ce 
being the interrogative pronoun, the qui following being the 
nominative of the verb, and vous its indirect object. 
Whom have you seen ? Qui est-ce que vous avez vu ? 

The interrogation here is made by the compound expression 
qui est-ce ; que is the object of the verb, and vous its nomina- 
tive. 



508 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

What have you said ? Qu'est-ce que vous-avez dit ? 

The interrogation here is completed by the compound ex- 
pression qu'est-ce ; que is the object, and vous the nominative 
of the verb. 

1793. 4th. When the nominative of a verb is a demonstra- 
tive pronoun, it immediately follows the verb in interrogative 
sentences, and is expressed by ce : as, 

Is it you ? Est-ce-vous ? 

Do you speak to me ? Est-ce que vous me parlez ? 

1794. 5th. When we ask a question with an interrogative 
adverb, this adverb always begins the sentence, and the nomi- 
native of the verb is placed after it : as, 

How do you do ? Comment vous portez-twws ? 

Why do you like this man ? Pourquoi aimez vous cet homme ? 

When an interrogative sentence is negative, the same ar- 
rangement of words is observed, and the two negative words, 
ne and pas, are placed according to the rules laid down in the 
article on adverbs ; that is to say, ne precedes the verb, and 
pas is placed after the interrogative pronoun which follows it : 
as, 

Is not the river higher to-day than La riviere n'est-elle pas plus haute 

it was yesterday ? aujourd'hui qu'hier ? 

Do you not like to study as well as N'aimez-vous pas l'etude autant que 

to play ? le jeu ? 

Have you not always behaved so as N'avez-vous pas toujours agi de ma- 

to command respect from others ? ni£re a commander le respect ? 

What have you not said about me ? Que n'&vez-vous pas dit de moi ? 

1795. We will now give a list of the interrogative words 
in English, with their signification in French. 

Who ? Qui ? Qui est-ce qui ? 
Who speaks ? Qui parle ? or, qui est-ce qui parle ? 

Whom 9 Qui ? Qui est-ce que ? 

Whom do you love ? Qui aimez- vous ? or, qui est-ce que 

vous aimez ? 



What ? Quoi ? Que ? Quel ? Qu'est-ce que 



What are you thinking about ? A quoi pensez-vous ? 

What do you mean ? Que voulez-vous dire ? or, qu'est-ce 

que vous voulez-dire ? 
What course will you pursue ? Quel parti prendrez-vous ? 



GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION. 509 

Which 9 Lequel, laquelle, lesquels, lesquelles ? 

Which do you admire the most? Le quel admirez-vous le plus ? Na- 
Napoleon or Charlemagne ? poleon ou Charlemagne ? 

When ? Quand ? 
When do you return? Quand reviendrez-vous ? 

Where ? Ou ? 
Where are you going ? Oil allez vous ? 

Whence 1 D'ou ? 
Whence do you come ? B*ou venez vous ? 

How ? Comment ? 
How do you do ? Comment vous portez-vous ? 

Homo much ? Combien ? 
How much did you pay for that ? Combien avez-vous paye cela? 

How many 2 

How many bushels of wheat did Combien de boisseaux de ble avez- 
you buy ? vous achete ? 

Why! 

Why do you love me ? Pourquoi m'aimez-vous ? 



CONSTRUCTION OF IMPERATIVE SENTENCES. 

1796. In sentences simply imperative, the verb is always 
placed first, in the first and second persons, but in the third 
person it comes after the pronoun, preceded by que ; the other 
words occupy the same place as they do in affirmative senten- 
ces. We have kept the third person in the imperative mood, 
in accordance with a usage adopted by most grammarians ; 
but we will observe here, that, in fact, the imperative mood has 
no third person. When the verb is used in that person, the 
proposition is elliptical, there is another verb understood, and 
what is called the third person of the imperative is in reality 
that of the subjunctive mood. 

Let us go into the country. Mlons a la campagne. 

Come and see me to-morrow. Ve.nez me voir demain. 

Let him go into the city. QuHl aille a la ville. 

Let the children go to walk. Que les enfants aillent se prome- 



ner. 



43* 



510 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

When the imperative sentence is negative, the negative 

words, ne, pas, are placed as in interrogative sentences ; as, 

Do not go into the country. N'allez pas a la campagne. 

Do not let him go out, I forbid it. Ne le laissez pas sortir, je le de- 
fends. 



The construction which we have mentioned in sentences, 
either affirmative, interrogative, or imperative, is called direct 
or regular, because the words are placed in the order in which 
they should be, to satisfy the wants of the mind ; but this order 
is sometimes altered in order to give the style more force, more 
rapidity or elegance. The construction is then called irregu- 
lar, and the transformations which it has to suffer are called 
figures. The construction may be figurative in several ways, 
the principal of which are called inversion, ellipsis, pleonasm, 
and syllepsis ; the others are not exactly within the province of 
grammar. 



Of Inversion. 

1797. Inversion is the transposition of a word or of a prop- 
osition into a place different from that which is ordinarily as- 
signed to it. 

An inversion must never affect the clearness of a sentence, 
and should be used only to introduce more perspicuity, ener- 
gy, or harmony into the language. 

There are two sorts of inversion in French, one more, the 
other less striking. We find an example of each in the follow- 
ing passage from Flechier : 

La valeur n'est qu'une chose aveugle et impetueuse, qui se trouble et 
se precipite, si elle n'est eclairee et conduite par la probite et par la pru- 
dence, et le capita ine n'est pas accompli, sHl ne renferme en soi Vhomme 
tclairi ei Vhomme sage. Quelle discipline peut etablir dans son camp celui 
qui ne peut rigler ni son esprit ni sa conduite ? Et comment saura cal- 
mer ou emouvoir, selon ses desseins, dans une armee, tant de passions 
difFerentes, celui qui ne sera pas mailre des siennes. 

The first two sentences give an illustration of a slight inver- 
sion, the last two of a very striking one. 



GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION. 511 

Written without inversion the preceding lines should stand 

as follows : 

Si la valeur n'est eclairee et conduite par la probite et par la prudence, 
elle n'est qu'une chose aveugle et impetueuse, — et si le capitaine De 
renferme pas en soi l'homme eclaire et 1'homme sage, il n'est pas ac- 
compli, — celui qui ne peut regler son esprit ni sa conduite, quelle dis- 
cipline peut-il etablir dans son camp ? — et celui qui ne sera pas maitre 
de ses passions, comment saura-t-il calmer ou emouvoir, selon ses des- 
seins, dans une armee, tant de passions differentes ? 

What a difference between these two constructions ! The 
latter is heavy and cold, and the former is brilliant, harmonious, 
and rapid. 

These two modes of inversion, although employed very of- 
ten in the various styles of writing, have a peculiar character, 
and should not be used indifferently. The first belongs more 
especially to elevated style, while the other should be restricted 
to a simple style. 

1793. Let us examine now what are the different ways which 
usage has introduced and grammar has sanctioned in the inver- 
sion of sentences. 

1st. The verb is very well placed after the noun which gov- 
erns it ; as, 

Tout ce que lui promet Vamittt des Romains, 

instead of 

Tout ce que l'amitie des Romains lui promet. 

Monsieur de Turenne fait voir tout ce que peut, pour la defense d'un 
royaume, un general d'armee qui s'est rendu digne de commander, 

instead of 

Monsieur de Turenne fait voir tout ce qu'un general d'armee, qui s'est 
rendu digne de commander, peut pour la defense d'un royaume. 

1799. 2d. The verb may be placed after its object, gov- 
erned by the preposition de, of ; as, 

C'est d'un homme viritablement Eclaire que je vous parle, 
instead of 

Je vous parle d'un homme veritablement eclaire. 

De touts les hommes c'est le plus digne de pitie, 
instead of 

C'est de touts les hommes, le plus digne de pitie. 



512 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

D'une voix plaintive il s'ecria, 
instead of 

II s'ecria d'une voix plaintive. 

1800. 3d. The verb may be preceded by its regimen, gov- 
erned by the preposition d, to ; as, 

A tant dHnjures, qu'avez-vous repondre ? 
instead of 

Qu'avez-vous a repondre a tant d'injures ? 
Sans doute a ce discours, il ne s'attendait pas, 

instead of 

Sans doute il ne s'attendait pas a ce discours. 

But the verb can never be preceded by its direct object. 
One of our old poets has committed a fault in writing : 

Par mille inventions, le public on depouille, 
On doit cueillir le fruit et non Varbre arracher. 

1801. 4th. Several prepositions, as apres, dans, par, sous? 
contre, followed by their complement, are elegantly placed 
before the verb : as, 

Apres ses pri&res aecoutume'es, elle s'abaissait jusqu'au neant, 

instead of 

Elle s'abaissait jusqu'au neant apres ses prieres accoutumees. 
Dans un tel etat defaiblesse, que pouvait elle entreprendre ? 

instead of 

Que pouvait elle entreprendre dans un tel etat de faiblesse ? 

Par la hi du corps, je tiens a ce monde qui passe, et par la foi, je tiens 
a Dieu qui ne passe point, 

instead of 

Je tiens a ce monde qui passe, par la loi du corps, et je tiens a Dieu qui 
ne passe point, par la foi. 

Contre des assauts si violents, il n'employait que la patience, 

instead of 

II n'employait que la patience contre des assauts si violents. 

1802. 5th. Finally, we may properly place before the prin- 
cipal sentence the conjunctions, quand, parceque, puisque. 



GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION. 513 

d'autant plus que, quoique, lorsque, &c, with the propositions 
governed by them ; as, 

PuisquHl le veut, qu'il le fasse, 

instead of 

Qu'il le fasse puisqu'il le veut. 
Tout austere que parait la vertu, elle n'en est pas moins attrayante, 

instead of 

La vertu n'en est pas moins attrayante, tout austere qu'elle paraisse. 

We see, by what precedes, that inversions are used both in 
prose and poetry, but they must always be employed with care, 
they must never destroy the clearness of style, but should be 
calculated to introduce into it rapidity, harmony, and force. 



Of the Ellipsis. 

1803. The ellipsis is the omission of one or several words 
necessary to render the construction complete. 

For an ellipsis to be proper, it is necessary that the mind 
should be able to supply, without trouble, the word or words 
which have been omitted. 

An ellipsis is faulty whenever it creates obscurity, confusion, 
or ambiguity. 

1804. The introduction of this figure into language is the 
result of the want which man feels to shorten the mode of ex- 
pressing his ideas ; by using the ellipsis, the speech becomes 
more rapid, more concise, is more graceful, and harmonious. 

1805. An ellipsis may be more or less striking ; it is hardly 
perceived in the following sentence : 

Puissiez-vous etre heureux! 
which is used instead of 

Je souhaite que vous puissiez etre heureux. 
It is more apparent in the answer to this phrase ; as, 

Quand viendrez-vous ? Demain, 
instead of 

Je viendrai demain. 



514 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

The following sentences are elliptical : 

Nous ferons la moisson a la mi-aout, 

instead of 

a la moittt du mois d'aout. 

Que vous a-t-il repondu ? Rien, 

instead of 

11 ne m?a rien ripondu. 

Corneille has made an admirable use of the ellipsis in the 

following sentences. Me dee is asked : 

Que vous reste-t-il ? Moi, answers she. 

This word moi, instead ofy'e me reste, is sublime. In anoth- 
er part, Prussias, addressing Nicomedus, tells him : 
Et que dois-je etre ? Roi, replies Nicomedus. 

This single word, Roi, expresses the whole. These two ad- 
mirable passages should not exist without the use of the ellipsis. 

1806. The ellipsis, then, as we have already stated, is the 
omission of one or several words, or even of a whole phrase ; 
but the following rule should be observed : 

An ellipsis ought to be so constructed, that the listener should 
not be able to perceive that there are words omitted in what 
he hears, and besides, it should be consecrated by usage. 

This rule is correct, but the nature of the language has a 
great influence in determining the propriety of an ellipsis. Po- 
etry admits what would be rejected in prose. In this verse of 
Racine, for instance : 

Je t'aimais inconstant, qu'eusse-je fait fidele ? 
the ellipsis is bold ; but is there any possible mistake as to the 
meaning of the writer ? Certainly not : the mind sees at once 
that he intends to say : 

Je t'aimais quoique tu fusses inconstant ; que rfaurais-je pas fait si iu 
eusses ite fideie. 

But while the verse is bold and energetic, this language is heavy 
and cold. Hermione, who speaks in this verse, was in a vio- 
lent passion, and wished to express at once, in one word> if 
possible, the storm which was raging in her bosom. Hence 
the sublimity of this figure, which would be faulty in prose, or 
even in poetry, if Hermione had been speaking calmly and in 
cold blood. 



GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION. 515 

We will give another example of an ellipsis rejected in prose 
and admitted in poetry. La Bruyere has said : 

Si j'epouse, Hermas, une femme avare, elle ne me ruinera point ; si une 
joueuse, elle pourra m'enrichir ; si une savante, elle pourra m'instruire ; 
si une prude, elle ne sera point emportee ; si une emporUe, elle exer- 
cera ma patience ; si une coquette, elle voudra me plaire ; si une galante, 

elle le sera peut-etre jusqu'a m'aimer ; si une devote repondez, 

Hermas, que dois-je attendre de celle qui veut tromper Dieu et qui se 
trompe elle-meme ? 

The several ellipses of this period are clear, and in some 

way necessary to avoid a tedious repetition ; how is it, then, 

that they are shocking ? It is because usage, the tyrant of 

language, does not authorize them in prose ; but in poetry they 

are perfectly proper, as in Delille : 

Le sol le plus ingrat connaitra sa beaute. 
Est-il nu ? Q,ue des bois parent sa nudite. 
Convert ? Portez la hache en ces forets profondes. 
Humide ? En lacs pompeux, en rivieres fecondes, 
Changez cette onde impure, et par d'heureux travaux, 
Corrigez a la fois, l'air, la terre et les eaux. 
Aride en/in? Cherchez, sondez, fouillez encore ; 
L'eau, lente a se trahir, peut-etre est pres d'eclore. 

Ellipses are frequent in the French language, but we cannot 
too often repeat, that usage, taste, clearness, and harmony must 
always be consulted before making use of them. 



Of Pleonasm. 

1807. The word Pleonasm comes from the Greek, and sig- 
nifies redundancy. 

Pleonasm, as a figure, consists in the use of a word or 
words which could be dispensed with without altering materi- 
ally the meaning of the sentence. 

A pleonasm, to be proper, must be authorized by usage ; 
and usage authorizes it only where it gives more energy to 
the expression, or shows more distinctly the feelings of the 
speaker. 

Hence there are two sorts of pleonasm : one resulting from 
the construction of the sentence ; the other from an impulse 
of the soul. 

1808. We make a pleonasm of the first kind, when we insert 



516 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

in the sentence a word, or some words, which are unnecessary 

to complete its meaning ; as, que, moi, vous, meme, en, &c, 

without which the phrase would be sufficiently clear ; as in the 

following : 

Avant que de parler, prenez moi ce mouchoir. 

Faites les moi les plus laids que ]'on puisse. 

II vous la prend et l'emporte. 

J'irai moi-mime. C'est ]m-m6me. 

Je m'en retourne ; il s'en va. 

Voler en Pair; les pierres tombent en has. 

These modes of expression should be admitted, because 
usage consecrates them, although they contain useless words, 
sometimes arranged in a manner which is not regular. 

It is in compliance with this tyranny of usage, that the 
Academy, in the following sentence, retains the letter y, which 
is entirely useless to the meaning : 

C'est une affaire oil il y va du salut de l'etat. 

1809. Ne, in many cases, is a mere pleonasm, without 
meaning of its own, and without influence upon that of the sen- 
tence ; as, 

Je crains qu'on ne vienne. 
J'empecherai que vous ne soyez puni. 
Prenez garde qu'il ne tombe. 

If we omit this particle we, the sense remains the same ; 
but these expressions are derived from the Latin ; ne takes the 
place of ne or quin, without implying the idea of a negation, 
and usage requires it to be retained. 

Enfin, seulement, a tout hasard, apres tout, and similar ex- 
pressions, are often mere pleonasms, which may be easily de- 
tected as such, with a little acquaintance with the language. 

1810. The second sort of pleonasms is of greater impor- 
tance in the expression of our thoughts ; it corresponds with 
the impulse of our soul, and gives more power and energy to 
the style. It generally consists in the repetition of a word, or 
in the addition of a word having the same meaning as another 
preceding it, but restraining or extending its signification ; as, 
in the following : 

S'il ne veut pas vous le dire, je vous le dirai, moi. 
II lui appartient bien a lui de parler comme il fait. 



GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION. 517 

«3e 1'ai entendu de mes propres oreilles. 

Et que m'a fait a moi cette Troie oU je cours. 

C'est a vous a sortir, vous qui parlez. 

Je l'ai vu, dis-je, vu, de mes propres yeux vu, ce que Ton appelie vu. 

Et je ne puis du tout me mettre dans l'esprit. 

Qu'il ait ose tenter les choses que l'on dit. 

All these pleonasms are authorized by usage, and taste ad- 
mits them ; because they possess some of the qualities which 
belong to this figure. 

1811. But usage rejects all those which are the mere re- 
petition of an idea, and which, instead of giving grace or force 
to the style, render it heavy and flat ; as, 

S'erc^regorger les uns les autres. 
Engagements rdciproques de part et d 'autre. 
Cadavres inanimes. Tempete orageuse. 

The following is a pleonasm of the same kind, frequently 

used : 

Dans le principe, pour deconcerter et faire trembler les factieux, on n'au- 
rait eu seulement qu'a se montrer. 

Settlement is useless, being already expressed by ne que. 



Of Syllepsis. 

1812. Syllepsis is a figure in which a word relates more to 
our meaning, than to the expressions used in a sentence. 
When we say, for instance : 

II est dix heures, 

L'an mil huit cent trente, 

our mind thinks only of the fact itself, and not of the arrange- 
ment of words used to express that fact ; thus, il is in the mas- 
culine gender, although heure is feminine ; an is in the singular 
number, although referring to more than one year. 

Je crains qu'il ne vienne. 
J'empecherai qu'il ne se tue. 
J'ai peur qu'il ne meure. 

In these sentences, the word ne is not used negatively, but. 
as we wish exceedingly that the events expressed by the last 
verb may not take place, we are willing to do any thing to pre- 
44 



518 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

vent them, and the negative ne is introduced to show that dispo- 
sition of our mind ; we should be equally well understood with- 
out it, but usage requires it to be preserved. 

There is an elegant syllepsis in the following lines of 
Racine : 

Entre le peuple et vous, vous prendrez Dieu pour juge ; 
Vous souvenant, mon fils, que cache sous ce lin, 
Comme eux vous futes pauvre et comme eux orphelin. 

Carried away by his feelings, the poet forgets that he has 
used the word peuple in the singular ; and, impressed with an 
idea of plurality, he makes the pronoun eux agree with the idea 
in his mind, which then regarded the pauvres and orphelins ex- 
isting among the people. 

For the same reason, Bossuet and Mezongui have said : 

Quand le peuple Hebreux entra dans la terre promise, tout y celebrait leurs 

ancetres. 
Mo'ise eut recours au Seigneur et lui dit : Que ferai-je a ce peuple ? Bi- 

entot Us me lapideront. 

Leurs and Us stand for les Hebreux. 



OF GRAMMATICAL DISCORDANCES. 

J813. Grammatical discordances consist in the arrangement 
of words contrary to the rules of the language. 

There are two principal sorts of discordances, one merely 
called Discordance ; the other called Amphibology. 



Of Discordances. 

1814. There is a discordance in language, whenever the 
words used in the formation of sentences do not agree with 
each other, either because their construction is contrary to 
analogy, or because they connect together dissimilar ideas, be- 
tween which the mind perceives an opposition, or cannot see a 
sufficient affinity. 

We will give several examples to illustrate this definition : 

Notre reputation ne depend pas des louanges qu'on nous donne, mais des 
actions louables que nous faisons. 



GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION. 519 

This sentence is incorrect, because the verb dependre being 
used negatively in the first proposition, cannot govern the sec- 
ond, which is affirmative. It should be : 

Our reputation depends, not upon Notre reputation depend, non des 

the praises which are bestowed louanges qu'on nous donne, mais 

on us, but upon the praiseworthy des actions louables que nous 

actions which we perform. faisons. 

1815. The most common discordances are those which 
arise from the wrong use of tenses, as in the following sen- 
tence : 

II regarde votre malheur comrae une juste punition du peu de com- 
plaisance que vous avez eu pour lui dans le temps qu'il vous pria de 
lui rendre service ; 

because the two preterites, definite and indefinite, cannot agree 
together. It should be : 

II regarde votre malheur comme une juste punition du peu de complai- 
sance que vous eutes pour lui dans le temps qu'il vous pria de lui ren- 
dre service. 

There is also a discordance in the following sentence : 

On en ressentit autant de joie que d'une victoire complete dans un autre 
temps ; 

because the verb, which is understood in the second sentence, 
establishing a comparison with the first, ought to be in the con- 
ditional past, whereas, the verb of the first proposition is in the 
preterite definite, and therefore cannot be omitted. It should 
be: 

On en ressentit autant de joie qu'on en aurait ressenti d'un victoire com- 
plete. 

The following verse of Racine is also incorrect : 

Le flot qui Yapporta recule epouvante ; 

because the form of the present cannot agree with that of the 
preterite definite. It should be : 

Le flot qui Pa apporte recule epouvante, 
or, 

Le flot qui l'apporta recula epouvante. 



520 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Of Amphibologies. 

1816. There is an amphibology in a sentence, when it may- 
receive two different interpretations ; this fault must be care- 
fully avoided, for, as we speak or write only to be understood, 
perspicuity is the most essential quality in language. 

An amphibology is occasioned by the wrong use of moods 
or tenses in the verbs, of the personal pronouns il, le, la, &c, 
of the possessive pronouns son, sa, ses, &c, or by giving a 
wrong place to nouns. 

Examples. 

1817. Of an amphibology of the first kind : 

Q,u'ai-je fait pour venir accabler en ces lieux 
Un heros sur qui seul j'ai pu tourner les yeux ? 

Pour venir forms an amphibology, on account of the use of 
the infinitive with the conjunction pour when that infinitive can- 
not have the same nominative as that of the first verb ; we do 
not know here, whether venir relates to the person who speaks 
or to the person spoken to ; therefore the subjunctive should 
be used with que; as, 

Qu'ai-je fait pour que vous veniez, &c. 

1818. Of an amphibology of the second kind : 

Cesar voulut premierement surpasser Pompee ; les grandes richesses 
de Crassus lui firent croire qu'il pourrait partager la gloire de ces 
deux grands hommes. 

There is an amphibology in this sentence, because we do 
not see clearly to whom relate the pronouns il and lui of the 
second proposition. They seem to refer to Cesar ; whereas, 
in fact, they relate to Crassus. It should be : 

Cesar voulut premierement surpasser Pompee ; les grandes richesses de 
Crassus firent croire a ce dernier qu'il pourrait partager la gloire de 
ces deux grands hommes. 

1819. Of an amphibology of the third kind : 

Valere alia chez Leandre ; il y trouva son fils. 

There is an amphibology in this sentence, because we do 
not see what noun the pronoun son relates to ; we do not 



GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION. 521 

perceive whether Valere found his own son, or the son of Le- 
andre. 

1820. Of an amphibology of the fourth kind : 

J'ai envoye les lettres que j'ai ecrites a la poste. 

A la poste, placed at the end of the sentence, creates an 
amphibology, because we do not know at once whether the let- 
ters have been written at the post-office, or merely sent there, 
after having been written somewhere else. 



OF GALLICISMS. 



1821. There are several sorts of Gallicisms ; some result 
from the introduction into writing of expressions no longer in 
use ; others consist in irregularities and deviations from the 
customary rules of the language ; some, also, consist in mere 
ellipses, while others can only be attributed to the caprice of 
custom. 

The three kinds of Gallicisms mentioned last are called 
Gallicisms of Construction, and are the only ones of which we 
shall speak here. 

1822. The Gallicism of construction, which destroys the 
clearness of a sentence, ought to be avoided. We should ad- 
mit only those which, consecrated by long usage, do not 
affect perspicuity, or introduce such irregularities of construc- 
tion, as to offend the rules of grammar. 

According to this principle, we should not say now : 

Et qu'ainsi ne soit, 
instead of, 

Ce que je vous dis est si vrai que, &c. ; 

because it destroys the clearness of the sentence, as in the fol- 
lowing : 
J'etais dans ce jardin, et qu'ainsi ne soit, voila une fleur que j'y ai cueillie, 

that is to say, and as a proof of it, 

Voila une fleur, &c. 

This expression has not been used since the time of Mo- 
liere and La Fontaine. 
44* 



522 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



1823. One of the most common Gallicisms is that in which 
the impersonal verb il y a, there is, is used instead of il est, it 
is, or il existe, it exists, as in the following : 

11 y avait une fois un roi, 



instead of, 



instead of, 



II etait une fois un roi. 
11 y a cent a, parier contr'un. 



Cent sont a parier contr'un. 

There are two Gallicisms in this sentence : 

11 n'y a pas jusqu'aux enfants qui ne s'en melent. 

1824. The verb falloir forms a Gallicism with the pronoun 
en, when it is conjugated in the reflective form, with the double 
pronouns il, se ; as, 

II s'en faut, il s'en fallait, &c. 
It then means, to be wanting ; and, when preceded by an ad- 
verb of quantity, the pronoun il is omitted ; as, 
Peu s'en faut, tant s'en faut. 

The several modes of using the verb falloir, to be necessa- 
ry, will be found in the following sentences : 

He is far from being so clever as II shin faut bien qu'il soit aussi ha- 

he thinks. bile qu'il croit l'etre. 

He was very near failing in that Peu s'en est fallu qu'il n'ait suc- 

undertaking. combe dans cette entreprise. 

He was as near as possible being 11 ne s'en est presque rien fallu qu'il 

killed. n'ait ete tue. 

You say it wants twenty pounds to Vous dites qu'il s'en faut vingt In- 
complete the sum ; but you are vres que la somme entiere n'y 
mistaken, it cannot want so soit ; mais vous vous trompez, il 
much. ne peut s'en falloir tant. 

His cold is entirely well, or very Son rhume est entierement gueri, 

nearly so. ou peu s'en faut. 

How near quarrelling were these Que s'en est-il fallu que ces deux 

two friends ? amis ne soient brouilles ? 

I am not satisfied with your appli- Je ne suis pas content de votre ap- 

cation to study ; far from it. plication a l'etude, tints' en faut. 

So far from this play pleasing me, Tant s'en faut que cette comedie 

I think it insufferable. me plaise, elle me semble au 

contraire detestable. 

I was far from approving your con- 11 s'en fallait beaucoup que je vous 

duct on that occasion. approuvasse dans cette circon- 

stance. 

The following sentences are also Gallicisms : 

He is far from being generous. II n'est rien moins que genereux. 

You may say what you please, but, Vous avez beau dire, mais, &c. 
&c. 



GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION. 523 

By what I can see, or as the mat- A ce qu'il me semble. 

ter appears to me. 

Here we are lamenting. Nous voila a nous lamenter. 

What wretched beings we are ! Q,u'est ce que de nous ! 

1825. Many Gallicisms arise from the use of the preposi- 
tion en ; some of this kind will be found in the following ex- 
pressions : 

Whom are you angry with ? whom A qui en avez-vous ? 

do you want to speak to ? 
What does he aim at ? what would Ou en veut-il venir ? 

he be at ? 
He is angry with him. II lui en veut 

The conjunction que also produces a great number of Galli- 
cisms ; as, 

Gambling is a terrible passion. C'est une terrible passion que le 

jeu. 
It is in vain, then, that I work. C'est done en vain que je travaille. 

That is not too much. Ce n'est pas trop que cela. 

There is nothing like having cour- II n'est que d'avoir du courage, 
age. 

1826. Many others arise from the use of the prepositions a, 
de, dans, apres, &c. ; but enough has been said already upon 
this subject in treating of the prepositions. 

1827. Gallicisms are very often resorted to in simple style ; 
La Fontaine and M. de Sevigne abound in them. The mid- 
dling style has not so many, and the solemn oratorical but 
few ; and these, even, are of a peculiar nature. We will give 
two examples of this kind, taken from the tragedy of Iphigenia, 
by Racine : 

Avez-vous pu penser qu'au sang d'Agamemnon 

Achille preferat une fille sans nom, 

Qui de tout son destin-ce qu'elle a pu comprendre, 

C'est qu'elle sort d'un sang, &c. 
And, 

Je ne sait qui m'arrete et retient mon courroux, 
Que par un prompt avi3 de tout ce qui se passe, 
Je ne coure des Dieux divulguer la menace. 

In the first example, qui is used as a nominative, without re- 
lating to any verb. 

In the second, je ne sais qui wHarrete que je ne courre is con- 
trary to the rules of construction. But it is said, as an excuse, 
that these extraordinary sentences, far from being faulty, pos- 
sess the more beauty, as they belong to a particular kind of lan- 
guage. 



CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 



1828. Conjugation of the Auxiliary Verb TO HAVE. 
in its four different forms. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 



to have 
avoir. 



having 
ayant. 



not to have 
ne pas avoir, n'a- 
voir pas. 

PARTICIPLE PRESENT. 

not having 
n'ayant pas. 

PARTICIPLE PAST. 



had 

eu, eue, eus, eues. 

COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT OF THE INFINITIVE AND PAST PARTICIPLE. 

to have had not to have had 

avoir eu. n'avoir pas eu. 

COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT AND PAST PARTICIPLE, 



having had 
ayant eu. 



Affirmative. 



j'ai 

tu as 

il or elle a 

nous avons 

vous avez 

ils or elles ont. 



not having had 
n'ayant pas eu. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT. 

Negative. 



Interrogative. Negative and In* 
terrogative. 

have I not ? &c. 



I have not, &c. have I ? &c. 

je n'ai pas ai-je ? 

tu n'as pas as-tu 

il or elle n'a pas a-t-il or a-t-elle 

nous n'avons pas avons-nous 

vous n'avez pas avez-vous 

ils or elles n'ont ont-ilsoront-elles?n'ont-ils or n'ont- 
pas. elles pas? 



n 'ai-je pas ? 
n'as-tu pas 
n' a-t-il or n 'a-t-elle 

pas 
n'avons-nous pas 
n'avez-vous pas 



AVOIR, TO HAVE, 



525 



IMPERFECT. 



I had, &c. 
j'avais 



tu avais 

il or elle avait 



nous avions 
vous aviez 



I had not, &c. had I ? &c. 



je n avais pas avais-je 
tu n'avais pas avais-tu 
il or elle n'avait avait-il or elle 

pas 
nous n'avions pas avions-nous 
vous n 'aviez pas aviez-vous 
ils or elles avaient. ils or elles n'avai- avaient-ils or elles?n'avaient-ils or 

ent pas. elles pas 



had I not ? &c. 
n'avais-je pas 
n'avais-tu pas 
n'avait-il or elle 

pas 
n'avions-nous pas 
n' aviez-vous pas 



I had, &c. 

j'eus 

tu eus 

il or elle eut 

nous eumes 

vous eutes 



PRETERITE DEFINITE. 

I had not, &c. had I ? &c. 

je n'eus pas eus-je 

tu n'eus pas eus-tu 

il or elle n'eut pas eut-il or elle 
nous n 'eumes pas eumes-nous 
vous n'eutes pas eutes-vous 



had I not ? &c. 

n' eus-je pas 
n'eus-tu pas 
n 'eut-il or elle pas 
n'eumes-nous pas 
n'eutes-vous pas 



ils or elles eurent. ils n'eurent pas. eurent-ils or elles ? n'eurent-ils pas 



PRETERITE INDEFINITE. 

I have had, &c. I have not had, &c. have I had ? &c. have I not had ? &c. 

j'ai eu je n'ai pas eu ai-je eu n'ai-je pas eu 

tu as eu tu n'as pas eu as-tu eu n'as-tu pas eu 

il or elle a eu il or elle n'a pas a-t-il or elle eu n'a-t-il or elle pas 

eu eu 

nous avons eu nous n'avons pas avons-nous eu n'avons-nous pas 

eu eu 

vous avez eu vous n'avez pas avez-vous eu n'avez-vous pas eu 

eu 
ils or elles ont eu. ils or elles n'ont ont-ils or elles eu?n'ont-ils or elles 

pas eu. pas eu ? 



PLUPERFECT. 



I had had, &c. I had not had, &c. had I had ? &c. had I not had ? &c. 



j avais eu 

tu avais eu 

il or elle avait eu 



je n avais pas eu 
tu n'avais pas eu 
il or elle n'avait 

pas eu 
nous n'avions pas 

eu 
vous n'aviez pas 

eu 
ils or elles avaient ils or elles n'avai- 
eu. ent pas eu. 



nous avions eu 



vous aviez eu 



avais-je eu n avais-je pas eu 

avais-tu eu n'avais-tu pas eu 

avait-il or elle eu n'avait-il or elle 

pas eu 
avions-nous eu n'avions nous pas 

eu 
aviez-vous eu n 'aviez-vous pas 

eu 
avaient-ils or elles n'avaient-ils or 
eu ? elles pas eu ? 



I had had, &c. 
j'eus eu 
tu eus eu 
il or elle eut eu. 



PRETERITE ANTERIOR. 

Ihadnothad, &c. had I had ? &c. 
je n'eus pas eu 



tu n eus pas eu 
il or elle n'eut pas 
eu. 



eus-je eu 
eus-tu eu 
eut-il or elle eu ? 



had I not had ? &c 
n'eus-je pas eu 
n'eus-tu pas eu 
n'eut-il or elle pas 
eu ? 



526 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



nous eumes eii nous neumes pas eumes-nous en n eumes-nous pas 
eu eu 

vous eutes eu vous n'eutes pas eutes-vous eu n'eutes-vous pas 
eu eu 

ils or elles eurent ils or elles n'eu- eurent-ils or elles n'eurent-ilsor elles 



eu. 



rent pas eu. 



eu 



pas eu 



FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 



I shall or will I shall or will not shall or will I shall or will I not 
have, &c. have, &c. have ? &c. have ? &c. 



j aurai 

tu auras 

il or elle aura 

nous aurons 
vous aurez 

ils or elles auront. ils or elles n'au- 
ront pas. 



je n aurai pas aurai-je 
tu n'auras pas auras-tu 
il or elle n'aura aura-t-il or elle 

pas 
nous n 'aurons pas aurons-nous 
vous n'aurez pas aurez-vous 



n aurai-je pas 
n'auras-tu pas 
n 'aura-til or elle 

pas 
n'aurons-nous pas 
n'aurez-vous pas 
auront-ils or elles ? n'auront-ils or elles 
pas? 



FUTURE ANTERIOR. 



I shall or will 
have had, &c. 

j 'aurai eu 

tu auras eu 

il or elle aura eu 

nous aurons eu 

vous aurez eu 

ils or elles auront 
eu. 



I shall or will not 
have had, &c. 

je n'aurai pas eu 
tu n'auras pas eu 
il or elle n'aura 

pas eu 
nous n'aurons pas 

eu 
vous n'aurez pas 

eu 
ils or elles n 'au- 
ront pas eu. 



shall or will I shall or will I not 
have had ? &c. have had ? &c. 

aurai-je eu n'aurai-je pas eu 

auras-tu eu n'auras-tu pas eu 

aura-t-il or elle n'aura-t-il or elle 

eu pas eu 

aurons-nous eu n'aurons-nous pas 

eu 
aurez-vous eu n'aurez-vous pas 

eu 
auront-ils or elles n'auront-ils or elles 
eu ? pas eu ? 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 



I should, would, 
could, or might 
have, &c. 

j'aurais 

tu aurais 

il or elle aurait 

nous aurions 
vous auriez 
ils or elles au- 
raient. 



I should, would, 
could, or might 
not have, &c. 

je n'aurais pas 
tu n'aurais pas 
il or elle n'aurait 

pas 
nous n'aurions pas 
vous n'auriez pas 
ils or elles n'au- 

raient pas. 



should, would, should, would, 
could, or might could, or might 
I have ? &c. I not have ? &c. 



aurais-je 
aurais-tu 
aurait-il or elle 

aurions-nous 
auriez-vous 
auraient-ils or 
elles ? 



n'aurais-je pas 
n'aurais-tu pas 
naurait-il or elle 

pas 
n'aurions-nous pas 
n'auriez-vous pas 
n'auraient-ils or 

elles pas ? 



AVOIR, TO HAVE. 



527 



CONDITIONAL PAST. 



I should, would, 
could, or might 
have had, &c. 

j'aurais eu 
tu aurais eu 
il or elle aurait 

eu 
nous aurions eu 

vous auriez eu 

ils or elles au- 
raient eu. 



I should, would, 
could, or might 
not have had, 
&c. 

je n'aurais pas eu 

tun'auraispaseu 

il or elle n'aurait 
pas eu 

nous n'aurions 
pas eu 

vous n'auriez pas 
eu 

ils or elles n'au- 
raient pas eu. 



should, would, 
could, or might 
I have had ? &c. 



aurais-je eu 
aurais-tu eu 
aurait-il or elle 

eu 
aurions-nous eu 

auriez-vous eu 

auraient-ils or 
elles eu ? 



should, would, 
could, or might 
I not have had ? 
&c. 

n 'aurais-je pas eu 
n'aurais-tu pas eu 
n'aurait-il or elle 

pas eu 
n'aurions nous pas 

eu 
n'auriez-vous pas 

eu 
n'auraient-ils or 

elles pas eu ? 



have, &c. 

aie 

qu'il ait 

ayons 

ayez 

qu'ils or qu'elles aient. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD, 
have not, &c 



n aie pas 

qu'il n'ait pas 

n'ayons pas 

n'ayez pas 

qu'ils or qu'elles n'aient pas. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



that I may have, &c. 

que j'aie 

que tu aies 

qu'il or qu'elle ait 

que nous ayons 

que vous ayez 

qu'ils or qu'elles aient. 



PRESENT. 

that I may not have, &c. 

que je n'aie pas 

que tu n'aies pas 

qu'il or qu'elle n'ait pas 

que nous n'ayons pas 

que vous n'ayez pas 

qu'ils or qu'elles n'aient pas, 



IMPERFECT. 



that I might have, &c. 

que j'eusse 

que tu eusses 

qu'il or qu'elle eut 

que nous eussions 

que vous eussiez 

qu'ils or qu'elles eussent. 



that I might not have, &c. 

que je n'eusse pas 

que tu n'eusses pas 

qu'il or qu'elle n'eut pas 

que nous n'eussions pas 

que vous n'eussiez pas 

qu'ils or. qu'elles n'eussent pas. 



PRETERITE. 



that I may have had, &c. 

que j'aie eu 

que tu aies eu 

qu'il or qu'elle ait eu 

que nous ayons eu 

que vous ayez eu 

qu'ils or qu'elles aient eu. 



that I may not have had, &c. 

que je n'aie pas eu 

que tu n'aies pas eu 

qu'il or qu'elle n'ait pas eu 

que nous n'ayons pas eu 

que vous n'ayez pas eu 

qu'ils or qu'elles n'aient pas eu. 



528 



FRENCH GRAMMAR, 



PLUPERFECT. 



that I might have had, &c. 

que j'eusse eu 

que tu eusses eu 

qu'il or qu'elle eut eu 

que nous eussions eu 

que vous eussiez eu 

qu'ils or qu'elles eussent eu. 



that I might not have had, &c. 

que je n'eusse pas eu 

que tu n'eusses pas eu 

qu'il or qu'elle n'eut pas eu 

que nous n'eussions pas eu 

que vous n'eussiez pas eu 

qu'ils or qu'elles n'eussent pas eu. 



1829. Conjugation of the impersonal verb, THERE 
TO BE. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT. 

there to be there not to be 

y avoir. ne pas y avoir or n'y avoir pas. 

PARTICIPLE PRESENT. 

there being there not being 

y ayant. n'y ayant pas. 

PAST Or PERFECT. 

there to have been not there to have been 

y avoir eu. . ne pas y avoir eu or n'y avoir pas eu. 

COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 

there having been there not having been 

y ayant eu. n'y ayant pas eu. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 



PRESENT. 

Affirmative. Negative. Interrogative. Interrogative and 

Negative. 

there is or there there is not or is there or are is there not or are 
are there are not there ? there not ? 

il y a. il n'y a pas. y a-t-il? n'y a-t-il pas ? 



IMPERFECT. 



there was or 
there were 

il y avait. 



there was not or was there or 
there were not were there ? 

il n'y avait pas. y avait-il ? 



was not there or 
were not there ? 

n'y avait-il pas ? 



Y AVOIR, THERE TO BE. 



529 



PRETERITE DEFINITE. 

there was or there was not or was or were 
there were there were not there ? 

il y eut. il n'y eut pas. y eut-il ? 



was or were not 
there ? 

n'y eut-il pas ? 



PRETERITE INDEFINITE. 

there has or there has or has or have 
have been have not been there been . p 

il y a eu. il n'y a pas eu. y a-t-il eu ? 



has or have not 
there been ? 

n'y a-t-il pas eu ? 



there had been 
il y avait eu. 



there had not 
been 



PLUPERFECT. 

had there been ? 



had not there 
been ? 



il n'y avait pas eu. y avait-il eu.' n'y avait-il pas eui 



there had been 
il y eut eu. 



PRETERITE ANTERIOR. 

had there been 



there had not 
been 

il n'y eut pas eu. y eut-il eu 



had not there 
been ? 

n'y eut-il pas eu 



FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 



there will or 
shall be 

il y aura. 



there will or 
shall not be 



will or shall 
there be ? 



il n'y aura pas. y aura-t-il ? 



will or shall not 
there be ? 

n'y aura-t-il pas ? 



FUTURE ANTERIOR. 

there will or shall there will or shall shall or will there shall or will there 

have been not have been have been ? not have been? 

il y aura eu. il n'y aura pas eu. y aura-t-il eu ? n'y aura-t-il pas eu? 

CONDITIONAL MOOD. 



PRESENT. 



there would, could, there would, could, would, could, 
should or might should or might should or might 
be not be there be ? 



y il aurait. 



il n'y aurait pas. y aurait-il ? 



would, could, 

should or might 
there not be ? 

n'y aurait-il pas ? 



there would, could, there would, could, would, could, 
should or might should or might should or might 
have been not have been there have been 



il y aurait eu. il n'y aurait pas eu. y aurait-il-eu ? 

45 



would, could, 

should or might 
there not have 
been ? 

n'y aurait-il pas eu ? 



530 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



that there may be 
qu'il y ait. 



that there might be 
qu'il y eut. 



that there may have been 
qu'il y ait eu. 



that there may not be 
qu'il n'y ait pas, 



IMPERFECT. 



that there might not be 
qu'il n'y eut pas. 



PRETERITE. 



that there may not have been 
qu'il n'y ait pas eu. 



PLUPERFECT. 



that there might have been that there might not have been 

qu'il y eut eu. qu'il n'y eut pas eu. 



to be 
etre. 



being 
etant. 



1830. Conjugation of the Verb TO BE, Etre. 
INFINITIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT. 

Negative. 
not to be 
ne pas etre. 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 



not being 
n'etant pas. 



PAST PARTICIPLE. 

been 
6t6. 

COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT OF THE INFINITIVE. 

to have been not to have been 

avoir ete* n'avoir pas ete 

COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 



having been 
ayant ete. 



not having been 
n'ayant pas ete. 



ETRE, TO BE. 



531 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Affirmative. 


trti.iL 

Negative. 


Interrogative. 


JYegative and In- 
terrogative. 


I am, &c. 


I am not, &c. 


am I ? &c. 


am I not ? &c. 


je suis 

tu es 

il or elle est 


je ne suis pas 

tu n'es pas 

il or elle n'est pas 


suis-je 

es-tu 

est-il or elle 


ne suis-je pas 
n'es-tu pas 
n'est-il or elle pas 


nous sommes 


nous ne sommes 


sommes-nous 


ne sommes-nous 


vous etes 

ils or elles sont. 


pas 

vous n'etes pas etes-vous 

ils or elles ne sont sont-ils or elles ? 


pas 
n'etes-vous pas 
ne sont-ils or elles 




pas. 




pas? 




IMPERFECT. 




I was, &c. 


I was not, &c. 


was I ? &c. 


was I not ? &c. 


j'etais 

tu etais 

il or elle 6tait 


je n'etais pas 
tu n'etais pas 
il or elle n'etait 


etais-je 
etais-tu 
etait-il or elle 


n'etais-je pas 
n'etais-tu pas 
n'etait-il or elle 


nous etions 
vous etiez 


pas 
nous n'etions pas 
vous n'etiez pas 


etions-nous 
etiez-vous 


pas 

n'etions-nous pas 
n'etiezvous pas 



ils or elles etaient. ils or elles n'etai- 
ent pas. 



etaient ilsor elles? n'etaient-ils or el- 
les pas ? 



I was, &c. 

je fus 
tu fus 
il or elle fut 



PRETERITE DEFINITE. 

I was not, &c. was I ? &c. 

je ne fus pas fus-je 

tu ne fus pas fus-tu 

il or elle ne fut fut-il or elle 
pas 



was I not ? &c. 

ne fus-je pas 
ne fus-tu pas 
ne fut-il or elle 

pas 
ne fumes-nous pas 



nous fumes nous ne fumes fumes- nous 

pas 
vousfutes vous ne futes pas futes-vous ne futes-vous pas 

ils or elles furent- ils or elles ne fu- furent-ils or elles ? ne furent-ils or el- 
rent pas. les pas ? 

PRETERITE INDEFINITE. 

I have been, &c. I have not been, have I been ? &c. have I not been ? 
&c. &c. 

j'ai ete je n'ai pas ete ai-je ete n'ai-je pas ete 

tu as ete tu n'as pas ete as-tu ete n'as-tu pas ete 

il or elle a ete il or elle n'a pas a-t-il or elle ete n'a-t-il or elle pas 

ete ete 

nous avons ete nous n'avons pas avons-nous ete n'avons-nous pas 

ete ete 

vous avez ete vous n'avez pas avez-vous ete n'avez-vous pas 

ete ete 

ils or elles ont ils or elles n'ont ont-ils or elles ete?n'ont-ils or elles 

ete. pas ete. pas ete ? 



532 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



PLUPERFECT. 

I had been, Sac. I had not been, had I been ? &c. had I not been? 

&c &e. 

j'avais ete je n'avais pas ete avais-je ete n'avais-je pas ete 

tu avais ete tu n'avais pas ete avais-tu ete n'avais-tu pas ete 

il or elle avait ete il or elle n'avait avait-il or elle n'avait-il or elle 

pas ete ete pas ete 

nous avions ete nous n'avions pas avions-nous ete n'avions nous pas 

ete ^te 

vous aviez ete vous n'aviez pas aviez-vous ete n'aviez-vous pas 

ete ete 

ils or elles avai- ils or elles n'avai- avaient-ils or n'avaient-ils or 

ent ete. ent pas ete, elles ete ? elles pas ete? 

PRETERITE ANTERIOR. 

I had been, &c. I had not been, had I been ? &c. had I not been ? 

&c. &c. 

j'eus ete je n'eus pas ete eus-je ete n'eus-je pas ete 

lu eus ete tu n'eus pas ete eus-tu ete n'eus-tu pas ete 

il or elle eut ete il or elle n'eut eut-il or elle ete n'eut-il or elle pas 

pas ete ete 

nous eumes ete nous n'eumes eumes-nous ete n'eumes-nous pas 

pas ete ete 

vous eutes ete vous n'eutes pas eutes-vous ete n'eutes-vous pas 

ete ete 
ils or elles eu- ils or elles n'eu- eurent-ils or elles n'eurent-ils or 

rent ete. rent pas ete. ete? elles pas ete t 

FUTURE PRESENT. 

I shall or will be I shall or will shall or will I shall or will I not 

&c. not be, &c. be ? &e. be ? &c. 

je serai je ne serai pas serai-je ne serai-je pas 

tu seras tu ne seras pas seras-tu ne seras-tu pas 

il or elle sera il or elle ne sera sera-t-il or elle ne sera-t-il or elle 

pas pas 

nous serons nous ne serons serons-nous ne serons nous 

pas pas 

vous serez vous ne serez serez-vous ne serez-vous pas 

pas 
ils or elles seront. ils or elles ne se- seront-ils or elles? ne seront-ils or 

ront pas. elles pas ? 

FUTURE ANTERIOR. 

I shall or will I shall or will not shall or will I shall or will I not 
have been, &c. have been, &c. have been ? &c. have been ? &c. 

j'aurai ete je n'aurai pas ete aurai-je ete n'aurai-je pas ete 

tu auras ete tu n'auras pas auras-tu ete n'auras-tu pas ete 

ete 

il or elle aura il or elle n'aura aura-t-il or elle n'aura-t-il or elle 

ete. pas ete. ete? pas ete ? 



ETRE, TO BE. 533 

nous aurons ete nous n'aurons aurons-nous ete n'aurons-nous pas 

pas ete ete 

vous aurez ete vous n'aurezpas aurez-vous ete n'aurez-vous pas 

ete ete 

ils or elles auront ils or elles n'au- auront-ils or elles n'auront-ils or 

ete. ront pas ete. ete? elles pas ete ? 

CONDITIONAL MOOD. 

PRESENT. 

I should, would, I should, would, should, would, should, would, 

could, or might could, or might could, or might could, or might 

be, &c. not be, &c. I be ? &c. I not be ? &c. 

je serais je ne serais pas serais-je ne serais-je pas 

tu serais tu ne serais pas serais-tu ne serais-tu pas 

il or elle serait il or elle ne se- serait-il or elle ne serait-il or elle 

rait pas pas 

nous serions nous ne serions serions-nous ne serions-nous 

pas pas 

vous seriez vous ne seriez seriez-vous ne seriez-vous pas 

pas 

ils or elles se- ils or elles ne seraient-ils or ne seraient-ils or 

raient. seraient pas. elles ? elles pas ? 

PAST. 

I should, would, I should, would, should, would, should, would, 

could, or might could, or might could, or might could, or might 

have been, &c. not have been, I have been? I not have been? 

&c. &c. &c. 

j'aurais ete je n'aurais pas aurais-je ete n'aurais-je pas ete 

ete 

tu aurais ete tu n'aurais pas aurais-tu etc" n'aurais-tu pas ete 

ete 

il or elle aurait il or elle n'aurait aurait-il or elle n'aurait-il or elle 

ete pas ete ete pas ete 

nous aurions ete nous n'aurions aurions-nousete n'aurions-nouspas 

pas ete ete 

vous auriez ete vous n'auriez auriez-vous ete n'auriez-vous pas 

pas ete etc* 

ils or elles au- ils or elles n'au- auraient-ils or n'auraient-ils or 

raient ete. raient pas ete. elles ete ? elles pas ete . ? 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

be be not 

sois ne sois pas 

qu'il or qu'elle soit qu'il or qu'elle ne soit pas 

soyons ne soyons pas 

soyez ne soyez pas 

qu'ils or qu'elles soient. qu'ils or qu'elles ne soient pas. 

45* 



534 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



PRESENT. 



that I may be, &c. 

que je sois 

que tu sois 

qu'il or qu'elle soit 

que nous soyous 

que vous soyez 

qu'ils or qu'elles soient. 



that I may not be, &e. 

que je ne sois pas 

que tu ne sois pas 

qu'il or qu'elle ne soit pas 

que nous ne soyons pas 

que vous ne soyez pas 

qu'ils or qu'elles ne soient pas 



IMPERFECT. 



that I might be, &c. 

que je fusse 

que tu fusses 

qu'il or qu'elle fut 

que nous fussions 

que vous fussiez 

qu'ils or qu'elles fussent. 



that I might not be, &c. 

que je ne fusse pas 

que tu ne fusses pas 

qu'il or qu'elle ne fut pas 

que nous ne fussions pas 

que vous ne fussiez pas 

qu'ils or qu'elles ne fussent pas. 



PRETERITE. 



that I may have been, &c. 

que j'aie ete 

que tu aies ete 

qu'il or qu'elle ait ete 

que nous ayons ete 

que vous ayez ete 

qu'ils or qu'elles aient ete. 



that I may not have been, &c. 

que je n'aie pas ete 

que tu n'aies pas ete 

qu'il or qu'elle n'ait pas ete 

que nous n'ayons pas ete 

que vous n'ayez pas ete 

qu'ils or qu'elles n'aient pas ete. 



PLUPERFECT. 



that I might have been, &c. 

que j'eusse ete 

que tu eusses ete 

qu'il or qu'elle eut ete 

que nous eussions ete 

que vous eussiez ete 

qu'ils or qu'elles eussent ete. 



that I might not have been, &c. 

que je n'eusse pas ete 

que tu n'eusses pas ete 

qu'il or qu'elle n'eut pas ete 

que nous n'eussions pas 6t6 

que vous n 'eussiez pas ete 

qu'ils or qu'elles n'eussent pas ete. 



1831. Conjugation of the Verbs ending in ER. 

FIRST CONJUGATION. AIMER. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 



PRESENT. 



to love 
aimer. 



not to love 
n'aimer pas. 



AIMER, TO LOVE. 



535 



PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 



loving 


not loving 


aimant. 


n'aimant pas. 




PAST PARTICIPLE. 


loved 




aime. 






COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT. 


to have loved 


not to have loved 


avoir aime. 


n'avoir pas aime. 



COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE, 

having loved not having loved 

ayant aime. n'ayant pas aime. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 



PRESENT. 



Affirmative. 



Negative. 



Interrogative. 



I love, &c, or I I love not, &c, do Hove? &c., 
am loving. or I do not love, or am I lov- 

or I am not lov- ing ? 
ing. 



j aime 

tu aimes 

il or elle aime 

nous aimons 

vous aimez 

ils or elles ai- 

ment. 



je n aime pas 
tu n'aimes pas 
il or elle n'aime 

pas 
nous n'aimons 

pas 
vous n'aimezpas 
Ils or elles n'ai- 

ment pas. 



aime-je 
aimes-tu 
aime-t-il or elle 

aimons-nous 

aimez-vous 
aiment-ils or 
elles ? 



Negative and In- 
terrogative. 

do I not love? &c., 
or am I not lov- 
ing ? 



n aime-je pas 
n'aimes-tu pas 
n'aime-t-il or elle 

pas 
n'aimons-nous pas 

n'aimez-vous pas 
n 'aiment-ils or elles 



pas ? 



IMPERFECT. 



I loved, or I did 
love, or I was 
loving, &c. 



j'aimais 

tu aimais 

il or elle aimait 

nous aimions 

vous aimiez 
ils or elles ai- 
maient. 



I loved not, or I 
did not love, 
or I was not 
loving, &c. 



did I love, or 
was I loving ? 
&c. 



je n aimais pas aimais-je 

tu n'aimais pas aimais-tu 

il or elle n 'aimait aimait-il or elle 

pas 

nous n'aimions aimions-nous 

pas 

vous n'aimiez pas aimiez-vous 

ils or elles n'ai- aimaient-ils or 

maient pas. elles ? 



did I not love, or 
was I not lov- 
ing ? &c. 

n 'aimais-je pas 
n'aimais-tu pas 
n 'aimait-il or elle 

pas 
n'aimions-nous pas 

n'aimiez-vous pas 
n'aimaient-ils or 
elles pas? 



536 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



I loved, or did 
love, &c. 

j'aimai 

tu aimas 

il or elle aima 

nous aimames 

vous aimates 

ils or elles ai- 
merent. 



PRETERITE DEFINITE. 

I loved not, or did I love? &c. 
did not love, 
&c. 

je n'airaai pas aimai-je 

tu n'aimas pas aimas-tu 

il or elle n'aima aima-t-il or elle 

pas 

nous n 'aimames aimames-nous 



vous n aimates aimates-vous 

pas 

ils or elles n'ai- aimerent-ils or 

merent pas. elles ? 



did I not love ? . 
&c. 

n'aimai-je pas 
n' aimas-tu pas 
n'aima-t-il or elle 

pas 
n'aimames-nous 

pas 
n'aimates-vous pas 

n 'aimerent-ils or 
elles pas ? 



PRETERITE INDEFINITE. 

I have loved, I have not loved, have I loved ? 

&c. &c. &c. 

j'ai aime je n'ai pas aim6 ai-je aime 

tu as aime tu n'as pas aime as-tu aime 

il or elle a aime il or elle n'a pas a-t-il or elle ai- 

aime me 

nous avons aime nous n'avons pas avons-nous aime 

aime 

vous avez aime vous n'avez pas avez-vous aime 

aime 

ils or elles ont ils or elles n'ont ont-ils or elles 
aime. 



pas aime. 



aime 



have I not loved ? 
&c. 

n'ai-je pas aime 
n 'as-tu pas aime 
n'a-t-il or elle pas 

aime 
n'avons-nous pas 

aime 
n'avez-vous pas ai- 
me 
n 'ont-ils or elles 
pas aime ? 






I had loved, &c. 

j'avais aime 
tu avais aime 

il or elle avait ai- 
me 

nous avions ai- 
me 

vous aviez aime 

ils or elles avai- 
ent aime. 



PLUPERFECT. 

I had not loved, had I loved ? &e. 
&c. 

je n'avais pas ai- avais-je aime 

me 

tu n'avais pas ai- avais-tu aime 

me 

il or elle n'avait avait-il or elle 

pas aime aime 

nous n'avions pas avions-nous ai- 

aime me 

vous n'aviez pas aviez-vous aime 

aime 

ils or elles n'avai- avaient-ils or elles 

ent pas aime. aime ? 



had I not loved ? 
&c. 

n 'avais-je pas ai- 
me 

n'avais-tu pas ai- 
me 

n 'avait-il or elle 
pas aime 

n'avions-nous pas 
aime 

n'aviez-vous pas ai- 
me 

n'avaient-ils or 
elles pas aime ? 



PRETERITE ANTERIOR. 

I had loved, &c. I had not loved, had I loved ? &c. 
&c. 

j'eus aime je n'eus pas ai- eus-je aime 

me 

tu eus aime tu n'eus pas ai- eus-tu aime 

me 
il or elle eut ai- il or elle n'eut eut-il or elle ai- 
me pas aime me 



had I not loved r 
&c. 

n 'eus-je pas aime 
n'eus-tu pas aime 
n'eut-il or elle pas 



AIMER, TO LOVE- 



537 



nous eumes ai- nous n eumes pas eumes-nous ai- n eumes-nous pas 

me aime me akne 

vous eutes aime vous n'eutes pas eiites-vous aime n'eutes-vous pas 

aime aime 

ils or elles eurent ils or elles n'eu- eurent-ils or elles n'eurent-ils or elles 

aime. rent pas aime. aime? pas aime ? 

FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 



I shall or will 
love, &c. 


I shall or will 
not love, &c. 


shall or will I 
love ? &c. 


shall or will I not 
love ? &c. 


j'aimerai 

tu aim eras 

il or elle aimera 


je n'aimerai pas 
tu n'aimeras pas 
il or elle n'aime- 


aimerai-je 
aimeras-tu 
aimera-t-il or elle 


n'aimerai-je pas 
n 'aimeras-tu pas 
n 'aimera-t-il or elle 


nous aimerons 


ra pas 
nous n'aimerons 


aimerons-nous 


pas 
n'aimerons-nous 


vous aimerez 


pas 
vous n'aimerez 


aimerez-vous 


pas 
n'aimerez-vous pas 


ils or elles aime- 
ront. 


pas 
ils or elles n'ai- 
meront pas. 


aimeront-ils or 
elles? 


n 'aimeront-ils or 
elles pas ? 




FUTURE 


ANTERIOR. 




I shall or will 
have loved, &c 


I shall or will 
not have lov- 
ed, &c. 


shall or will I 
have loved ? 
&c. 


shall or will I not 
have loved ? &c. 


j'aurai aime 


je n'auraipas ai- 
me 
tu n'auras pas 


aurai-je aime 


n 'aurai-je pas aime 


tu auras aime 


auras-tu aime 


n'auras-tu pas ai- 


il or elle aura ai- 


aime 
il or elle n'aura 


aura-t-il or elle 


me 
n'aura-t-il or elle 


me 


pas aime 


aime 


pas aime 


nous aurons aime 


nous n'aurons 


aurons-nous ai- 


n'aurons-nous pas 


vous aurez aime 


pas aime 
vous n'aurez pas 


me 
aurez-vous aime 


aime 
n'aurez-vous pas 


ils or elles auront 


aime 
ils or elles n'au- 


auront-ils or elles 


aime 
n'aurontils or elles 


aime. 


ront pas aime. 


aime ? 


pas aime ? 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 



PRESENT. 



I should, could, 
would, or might 
love, &c. 

j'aimerais 

tu aimerais 

il or elle aimerait 

nous aimerions 

vous aimeriez 

ils or elles aime- 
raient. 



I should, could, 

would, or might 

not love, &c. 

je n'aimerais pas 

tu n'aimerais pas 

il or elle n'aime- 

rait pas 
nous n'aimerions 

pas 
vous n'aimeriez 

pas 
ils or elles n'ai- 
meraient pas. 



should, could, should, could, 
would, ormight would, or might 
I love ? &c. I not love ? &c. 



aimerais-je 
aimerais-tu 
aimerait-il or elle 

aimerions-nous 

aimeriez-vous 

aimeraient-ils or 
elles ? 



n aimerais-je pas 
n'aimerais-tu pas 
n 'aimerait-il or elle 

pas 
n'aimerions-nous 

pas 
n 'aimeriez-vous 

pas 
n'aimeraient-ils or 

elles pas ? 



538 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



I should, could, I should, could, should, could, should, could, 

would, or might would, or might would, or might would, or might 
have loved, &c. have not loved. I have loved? I not have lov- 
&c. &c. ed ? &c. 



j aurais aime 
tu aurais aime 

il or elle aurait 
aime 

nous aurions ai- 
me 

vous auriez ai- 
me 

ils or elles au- 
raient aime. 



je n aurais pas 

aime 
tu n 'aurais pas 

aime 
il or elle n 'aurait 

pas aime 
nous n 'aurions 

pas aime 
vous n'auriez 

pas aime 
ils or elles n'au- 

raient pas aime. 



aurais-je aime 
aurais-tu aime 

aurait -il or elle 
aime 

aurions-nous ai- 
me 

auriez-vous aime 

auraient-ils or 
elles aime ? 



n 'aurais-je pas ai- 
me 

n'aurais-tu pas ai- 
me 

n'aurait-il or elle 
pas aime 

n'aurions-nouspas 
aime 

n 'auriez-vous pas 
aime 

n'auraient-ils or 
elles pas aime ? 



love, or do love 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

love not, or do not love 



aime 

qu'il or qu'elle aime 

aimons 

aimez 

qu'ils or qu'elles aiment. 



n aime pas 

qu'il or qu'elle n'aime pas 

n'aimons pas 

n'aimez pas 

qu'ils or qu'elles n'aiment pas, 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



that I may love, &c. 

que j'aime 

que tu aimes 

qu'il or qu'elle aime 

que nous aimions 

que vous aimiez 

qu'ils or qu'elles aiment. 



PRESENT. 

that I may not love, &c. 

que je n'aime pas 

que tu n'aimes pas 

qu'il or qu'elle n'aime pas 

que nous n'aimions pas 

que vous n'aimiez pas 

qu'ils or qu'elles n'aiment pas. 



that I might love, &c. 

que j'aimasse 

que tu aimasses 

qu'il or qu'elle aimat 

que nous aimassions 

que vous aimassiez 

qu'ils or qu'elles aimassent. 



that I may have loved, &c. 

que j'aie aime 

que tu aies aime 

qu'il or qu'elle ait aime 



IMPERFECT. 

that I might not love, &c. 

que je n'aimasse pas 

que tu n'aimasses pas 

qu'il or qu'elle n'aimat pas 

que nous n'aimassions pas 

que vous n'aimassiez pas 

qu'ils or qu'elles n'aimassent pas. 

PRETERITE. 

that I may not have loved, &c. 

que je n'aie pas aime a 
que tu n'aies pas aime 
qu'il or qu'elle n'ait pas aime 



REMARKS ON THE FIRST CONJUGATION. 539 

que nous ayons aime que nous n'ayons pas aime 

que vous ayez aime que vous n'ayez pas aime 

qu'ils or qu'elles aient aime. qu'ils or qu'elles n'aient pas aime. 



PLUPERFECT. 

that I might have loved, &c. that I might not have loved, &c. 

que j'eusse aime que je n'eusse pas aime^ 

que tu eusses aime que tu n'eusses pas aime 

qu'il or quelle eut aime qu'il or qu'elle n'eut pas aime 

que nous eussions aime que nous n'eussions pas aime 

que vous eussiez aime que vous n'eussiez pas aime 

qu'ils or qu'elles eussent aime. qu'ils or qu'elles n'eussent pas aime. 



REMARKS ON THE FIRST CONJUGATION. 

1832. This conjugation has only four irregular verbs ; as, 

Aller, to go. 

S'en aller, to go away. 

Envoyer, to send. 

Renvoyer, to send back. 

All other verbs ending in er are called regular ; but sev- 
eral of them undergo changes in the orthography of some of 
their tenses and persons. These irregularities, which have not 
been deemed sufficient to cause these verbs to be classed 
among the irregular, deserve, however, the most careful at- 
tention ; because, without a full knowledge of them, it is im- 
possible to write or pronounce the language correctly. 

The following table will give a complete idea of these irreg- 
ularities . 

The tenses and persons marked with an asterisk are the only 
ones which are irregular. 



540 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERBS 


eter 


eler 


ger 

INFINITIVE 

PRE" 


to throw 


to call 


to avenge 


jeter 


appeler 


venger 

PRESENT 


throwing 


calling 


avenging 


jetant 


appelant 


vengeant 

PAST 


thrown 


called 


avenged 


jete 


appele 


venge 

COMPOUND OF 


to have thrown 


to have called 


to have avenged 


avoir jete 


avoir appele 


avoir venge 

COMPOUND OF 


having- thrown 


having called 


having avenged 


ayant jete 


ayant appele 


ayant venge 

INDICATIVE 



jeorj 

tu 

il or elle 

nous 

vous 

ils or elles 



throw 



call 



avenge 



jette # 


appelle * 


venge 


jettes * 


appelles * 


venges 


jette * 


appelle * 


venge 


jetons 


appelons 


vengeons * 


jetez 


appelez 


vengez 


jettent * 


appellent * 


vengent 



IMPER- 



threw 



called 



avenged 



je or y 


jetais 


appelais 


vengeais * 


tu 


jetais 


appelais 


vengeais * 


il or elle 


jetait 


appelait 


vengeait * 


nous 


jetions 


appelions 


vengions 


vous 


jetiez 


appeliez 


vengiez 


ils or elles 


jetaient 


appelaient 


vengeaient * 



JETER, ETC 



541 



ENDING AS FOLLOWS : 

eer cer yer 

MOOD. 



ler. 



to agree 


to pierce 


to employ 


to pray 


agreer 


percer 


employer 


prier. 


PARTICIPLE. 








agreeing 


piercing 


employing 


praying 


agreant 


percant 


employant 


priant. 


PARTICIPLE. 








agreed 


pierced 


employed 


prayed 


agree 


perce 


employe 


prie. 



THE PRESENT. 

to have agreed to have pierced 

avoir agree avoir perce 

THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 

having agreed having pierced 

ayant agree ayant perce 

MOOD. 



to have employed to have prayed 

avoir employe avoir prie. 

having employed having prayed 

ayant employe ayant prie. 



agree 


pierce 


employ 


pray 


agree 


perce 


emploie * 


prie 


agrees 


perces 


emploies * 


pries 


agree 


perce 


emploie * 


prie 


agreons 


pergons * 


employons 


prions 


agreez 


percez 


employez 


priez 


agreent 


percent 


emploient * 


prient. 


FECT. 








agreed 


pierced 


employed 


prayed 


agreais 


percais * 


employais 


priais 


agreais 


pergais * 


employais 


priais 


agr£ait 


pergait * 


employ ait 


priait 


agreions 


percions 


employions 


priions 


agreiez 


perciez 


employiez 


priiez 


agreaient 


pergaient * 


employaient 


priaient, 



46 



542 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



PRETERITE 



I 


threw or did 


called or did call 


avenged or did 




throw 




avenge 


jeorj' 


jetai 


appelai 


vengeai * 


tu 


jetas 


appelas 


vengeas * 


il or elle 


jeta 


appela 


vengea * 


nous 
vous 


jetames 
jetates 


appeiames 
appelates 


vengeames * 
vengeates * 


ils or elles 


jeterent 


appelerent 


vengdrent 

PRETERITE 


I have 


thrown 


called 


avenged 


j'ai 


jete 


appele 


venge 


tu as 


(< 


(< 


tt 


il or elle a 


(< 


u 


a 


nous avons 


a 


(i 


a 


vous avez 


a 


(( 


a 


ils or elles ont 


it, 


11 


PLU- 


I had 


thrown 


called 


avenged 


j'avais 


jete 


appele 


venge 


tu avais 


a 


(< 


tc 


il or elle avait 


a 


(( 


a 


nous avions 


(C 


(C 


a 


vous aviez 


u 


(( 


n 


ils or elles avaient " 


a 


n 








PRETERITE 


I had 


thrown 


called 


avenged 


j'eus 


jete 


appele 


venge 


tu eus 


ct 


" 




il or elle eut 


a 


(< 


(< 


nous eumes 


a 


tc 


a 


vous eutes 


u 


(< 


a 


ils or elles eurent " 


(( 


a 








FUTURE 


I shall or will 


throw 


call 


avenge 


jeorj' 
tu 


jetterai * 


appellerai * 


vengerai 


jetteras * 


appelleras * 


vengeras 


il or elle 


jettera * 


appellera # 


vengera 


nous 


jetterons * 


appellerons * 


vengerons 


vous 


jetterez * 


appellerez # 


vengerez 


ils or elles 


jetteront * 


appelleront * 


vengeront 







JETER, ETC. 


5 


DEFINITE. 










agreed or did 
agree 


pierced or 
pierce 


did 


employed or did 
employ 


prayed or did 
pray 


agreai 

agreas 

agrea 

agreames 

agreates 

agreerent 


per§ai * 
pergas * 
perga # 
pergames * 
pergates* 
percerent 


i 


employai 

employas 

employa 

employames 

employates 

employment 


priai 

prias 

pria 

priames 

priates 

prierent. 


INDEFINITE. 










agreed 


pierced 




employed 


prayed 


agree 

ii 


perce 

a 




employe 


prie 


«( 


a 




(< 


it 


(( 


(( 




<< 


a 


l< 


«< 




t( 


a 


it 


a 




a 


a 


PERFECT. 

agreed 


pierced 




employed 


prayed 


agr£e 


perce 




employe 


prie 



543 



ANTERIOR. 



agreed 
agree 



pierced 
perce 



employed 
employe" 



prayed 
prie 

it 



PRESENT. 






agree 


pierce 


employ 


agreerai 


percerai 


emploierai * 


agreeras 


perceras 


emploieras * 


agreera 


percera 


emploiera * 


agreerons 


percerons 


emploierons * 


agrderez 


percerez 


emploierez * 


agreeront 


perceront 


emploieront * 



pray 

prierai 

prieras 

priera 

prierons 

prierez 

prieront. 



544 



FRENCH GRAMMAR, 



FUTURE 



I shall or will 
have 

j'aurai 

tu auras 

il or elle aura 

nous aurons 

vous aurez 

ils or elles auront 



thrown 



jete 



called 
appele 



avenged 
venge 



CONDITIONAL 



I should, would, throw 
could, or might 



je or j' 

tu 

il or elle 

nous 

vous 

ils or elles 



jetterais * 
jetterais * 
jetterait # 
[etterions * 
jetteriez * 
jetteraient * 



I should, would, thro wo 
eould, or might 
have 



j aurais 

tu aurais 

il or elle aurait 

nous aurions 

vous auriez 

ils or elles auraient 



jete 



call 

appellerais * 
appellerais # 
appellerait * 
appellerions * 
appelleriez # 
appelleraient 



called 



appele 



avenge 



vengerais 

vengerais 

vengerait 

vengerions 

vengeriez 

vengeraient 



avenged 



venge 



PAST. 



qu'il or qu'elle 
qu'ils 



throw 

jette * 
jette * 
jetons 



jetez 
or qu 'elles jettent * 



call 

appelle * 
appelle * 
appelons 
appelez 
appellent # 



IMPERATIVE 



avenge 

venge 
venge 
vengeons * 
vengez 
vengent 

SUBJUNCTIVE 



that I may throw 

que je or j' jette * 

que tu jettes * 

qu'il or qu'elle jette* 

que nous jetions 

que vous jetiez 

qu'ils or qu'elles jettent * 



call 

appelle # 
appelles * 
appelle * 
appelions 
appeliez 
appellent * 



avenge 

venge 

venges 

venge 

vengions 

vengiez 

vengent 



JETER, ETC. 



545 



ANTERIOR. 

agreed 



pierced 



employed 



prayed 



agree 



perce 



employe* 



prie* 



MOOD. 



SENT. 








agree 


pierce 


employ 


pray 


agreerais 

agreerais 

agreerait 

agreerions 

agreeriez 

agreeraient 


percerais 

percerais 

percerait 

percerions 

perceriez 

perceraient 


emploierais * 
emploierais * 
emploierait * 
emploierions * 
emploieriez * 
emploieraient * 


prierais 

prierais 

prierait 

prierions 

prieriez 

prieraient 


agreed 


pierced 


employed 


prayed 


agree 


perce 


employe 


prie* 



u 


» 


t( 


u 


u 


tt 


it 


« 


tt 


ti 


» 


u 


it 


tt 


u 


It 


MOOD. 








agree 


pierce 


employ 


pray 


agree 

agree 

agr^ons 

agreez 

agr^ent 


perce 
perce 
percons * 
percez 
percent 


emploie * 
emploie * 
employons 
employez 
emploient * 


prie 

prie 

prions 

priez 

prient. 



MOOD. 



SENT. 



agree 


pierce 


employ 


pray 


agree 


perce 


emploie * 


prie 


agrees 


perces 


emploies * 


pries 


agree 


perce 


emploie * 


prie 


agreions 


percions 


employions 


prions " 


agreiez 


perciez 


employiez 


priez* 


agr^ent 


percent 
46* 


emploient * 


prient. 



546 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 









1MPER- 


that I might 


throw 


call 


avenge 


que je or j' 


jetasse 


appelasse 


vengeasse * 


que tu 


jetasses 


appelasses 


vengeasses * 


qu'il or qu'elle 


jetat 


appelat 


vengeat * 


que nous 


jetassions 


appelassions 


vengeassions * 


que vous 


jetassiez 


appelassiez 


vengeassiez * 


qu'ils or qu'elles 


jetassent 


appelassent 


vengeassent * 

PRETER- 


that I may have 


thrown 


called 


avenged 


que j'aie 


jete 


appele 


venge 


que tu aies 


(< 


u 


a 


qu'il or qu'elle ait 


(C 


u 


K 


que nous ayons 


a 


u 


U 


que vous ayez 


u 


u 


u 


qu'il or qu'elles 


c< 


<( 


C( 


aient 






PLU- 


that I might have 


thrown 


called 


avenged 


que j'eusse 


jete 


appele 


venge 


que tu eusses 


u 


a 


« 


qu'il or qu'elle eut " 


Ct 


u 


que nous eussions " 


(( 


a 


que vous eussiez 


a 


K 


u 


qu'ils or qu'elles 


a 


« 


u 


eussient 








1833. From 


the foregoing 


table it results, that the verbs 



ending in eter double the t, whenever this letter is followed by 
a mute syllable, as e, e.s, ent. 

1834. That the words ending in eler double the /, whenever 
this letter is followed by a mute syllable, as e, es, ent. 

1835. That the verbs ending in ger keep the e after the g, 
whenever this letter, according to the conjugation of the verb 
aimer, ought to precede the vowels a and o, so as to continue 
to the g the soft sound which it must have in the pronunciation. 

1836. That the verbs ending in eer must keep the two ee-s 
all through the conjugation, in all tenses and persons. 

1837. That the verbs ending in cer take a cedilla under the 
c, whenever this letter is followed by one of the vowels, a, or 
o, so as to preserve the soft sound which it must have in the 
pronunciation. 

1838. That the verbs ending in yer change the letter y into 
ij whenever the y should be followed by an e, mute. 



JETER, ETC. 



547 



FECT. 

agree 

agr^asse 

agreasses 

agreat 

agreassions 

agreassiez 

asrreassent 



pierce 

per§asse * 
pergasses # 
per§at * 
percussions * 
percassiez * 
per9assent # 



employ 

eraployasse 

employasses 

employat 

employassions 

employassiez 

employassent 



pray 

priasse 

priasses 

priat 

priassions 

priassiez 

priassent. 



agreed 
agree 



pierced 
perce 



employed 
employe 



prayed 

prie 
u 



agreed 
agree 



pierced 
perce 



employed 
employe 



prayed 
prie 



1839. That the verbs ending in ier do not take, in the first 
and second persons plural of the present of the subjunctive, 
the termination of the imperfect of the indicative, as the verb 
aimer does, but that of the present of the indicative. 

1840. But these exceptions are themselves subject to 
some restrictions ; for instance, there is a certain number of 
verbs ending in eter, which instead of doubling the letter t be- 
fore a mute syllable, as jeter, keep a single £, but take a 
grave accent over the e preceding it. They are the follow- 
ing : 



Acheter, 

Colleter, 

Coqueter, 

Decolleter, 

Etiqueter, 

Suracheter, 

Trompeter, 



to buy. 

to collar. 

to coquet. 

to uncover the neck. 

to label. 

to overpay. 

to summon with sound of trumpet. 



548 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



1841. The verbs ending in ecer, enter, ener, ever, evrer, 
are conjugated in the same manner, taking a grave accent over 
the e, whenever it is followed by a mute syllable, as in the fol- 
lowing : 



Depecer, 

Semer, 

Mener, 

Achever, 

Sevrer, 



to carve, 
to sow. 
to lead, 
to finish, 
to wean. 



The present of the indicative of these verbs is written as 
follows : 

J'achete and not j'achette. 



Je depece 
Je seme 
Je mene, 
J'acheve, 
Je sevre, 



je depece. 
je seme, 
je mene. 
j'acheve. 
je sevre. 



1842. All the verbs ending in 



Ebrer 

Ecer 

Echer 

Eder 

Egler 

Egner 

Eguer 

Eler 

Emer 

Ener 

Equer 

Erer 

Eter 

Etrer 



as celebrer, 
" rapiecer, 
" pecher, 
" deceder, 
" regler, 
" regner, 
u alleguer, 
" reveler, 

blasphemer, 

aliener, 

hypothequer, 

adherer, 

empieter, 

pen etrer, 



to celebrate, 
to piece, 
to commit sin, 
to die, 
to regulate, 
to reign, 
to allege, 
to reveal, 
to blaspheme, 
to alienate, 
to mortgage, 
to adhere, 
to encroach, 
to penetrate, 



change the acute accent which is on the c of the penultimate 
syllable into a grave accent in all the tenses and persons in 
which this syllable is followed by e, es, ent ; as, 



Je c&ebre, 
Tu regies, 
lis revelent, 



I celebrate, 
thou regulatest. 
they reveal, &c. 



1843. Among the verbs ending in eler, there are some 
which, instead of doubling the I before a mute syllable, take 
a grave accent over the e which precedes the I. They are the 
following : 





FINIRj TO FINISH. 


Peler, 


to peal. 


Bourreler, 


to torment. 


Congeler, 


to congeal. 


Degeler, 


to thaw. 


Geler, 


to freeze. 


Harceler, 


to torment. 


Regeler, 


to freeze again. 


rhese verbs are 


conjugated in the following manner 


I peal, 


Je pele, and not pelle. 


He torments, 


11 harcele, " harcelle. 


They torment, 


lis bourrelent, " bourellent. 


It will thaw. 


11 degelera, " degellera. 


It congeals, 


11 congele, " congelle. 


It would freeze, 


11 gelerait, " gellerait. 



549 



1844. All the verbs of this conjugation, to the number of 
about twenty-five hundred, in the first person singular of the 
present of the indicative, under the interrogative form, take a 
grave accent over the last e ; as, nime-je 9 &c. Most gram- 
marians recommend the use of the acute accent in this case, 
instead of the grave ; but the pronunciation induces us not 
to fall into their views, because this last e always sounds as if 
a grave accent were placed over it. 



SECOND CONJUGATION. F1NIR. 

Conjugation of the Verbs ending in IR. 
INFINITIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT. 

to finish not to finish 

finir. ne pas finir. 

1845. This tense expresses a present in regard to the verb 
which precedes it ; as, 

Je le vois I see him \ 

Je l'ai vu I have seen him \ travailler, work, 

Je le verrai I shall see him J 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 

finishing not finishing 

finissant. ne finissant pas. 



550 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



1846. This tense, as well as the past participle, and the 
compound of the present participle with the past, expresses ei- 
ther a present, a past, or a future, according to the tense of the 
principal verb of the sentence ; as, 



II est 
II a ete 
II sera 
Je suis 
J'ai e"te 
Je serai 



He is 

He has been 

He will be 

I am 

1 have been 

I shall be 



Ayant desire le voir, 



I 

/ aime de mon pere, 
( father. 

having wished to see him. 



suppliant, supplicating. 

loved by my 



PAST PARTICIPLE. 

finished 
fini. 



COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT AND PAST PARTICIPLE. 



having finished 
ayant fini. 



not having finished 
n 'ayant pas fini. 



COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT OF THE INFINITIVE AND PAST 
PARTICIPLE. 

to have finished not to have finished 

avoir fini n'avoir pas fini. 

1847. This tense expresses a past in reference to the tense 
of the verb which precedes it ; as, 

I believe, or did believe that I saw Je crois, or je croyais Y avoir vu ve- 
him coming. nir. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT. 



Affirmative. 

I finish, &c. 

je finis 
tu finis 
il or elle finit 

nous finissons 

vous finissez 



Negative. Interrogative. Interrogative and 

Negative. 

I do not finish, do I finish ? &c. do I not finish ? 
&c. 

je ne finis pas finis-je 

tu ne finis pas finis-tu 

il or elle ne finit finit-il or elle 

pas 

nous ne finissons finissons-nous 



vous ne finissez finissez-vous 
pas 

ils or elles finis- ils or elles ne fi- finissent-ils or 

sent. nissent pas. elles? 



&c. 

ne finis-je pas 
ne finis-tu pas 
ne finit-il or elle 

pas 
ne finissons-nous 

pas 
ne finissez-vous 

pas 
ne finissent-ils or 

elles pas ? 



FINIR, TO FINISH. 551 

1848. This tense expresses that a fact is taking place, that 
a thing is done at the moment when a person speaks ; as, 

What are you doing now ? I am Que faites vous actuellement ? Je 
working. travaille. 

IMPERFECT. 

I finished or was I finished not or did I finish or did I not finish or 
finishing, &c. was not finish- was I finish- was I not finish- 
ing, &c. ing ? &c. ing ? &c. 

je finissais je ne finissais finissais-je ne finissais-je pas 

pas 

tu finissais tu ne finissais finissais-tu ne finissais-tu pas 

pas 

il or elle finissait il or elle ne finis- finissait-il or nefinissait-il or elle 

sait pas elle pas 

nous finissions nous ne finis- finissions-nous ne finissions-nous 

sions pas pas 

vous finissiez vous ne finissiez finissiez-vous ne finissiez-vous 

pas pas 

ils or elles finis- ils or elles ne fi- finissaient-ils or ne finissaient-ils or 

saient. nissaient pas. elles ? elles pas ? 

1849. This tense is used to express the past in several 
ways : 

1st. To signify that a fact took place at the same time 
that another fact was taking place ; as, 

While you were walking this morn- Tandis que vous vous promeniez ce 



e y 



ing, I was working. matin, je travaillais. 

2d. To express an habitual disposition of the mind, an ha- 
bitual occupation in the past ; as, 

People thought formerly that the On croyait autrefois que le soleil 

sun was turning round the earth. tournait autour de la terre. 

While I was in the country, I used Quand jVto'sala campagne, je mon- 

to ride on horseback every day. tais a cheval tous les jours. 

3d. To express any fact in the past implying duration ; as, 

Upon my return from hunting, I saw En revenant de la chasse, je vis un 
a tree which grew near an old arbre qui croissait pres d'un vieux 
wall. mur. 

4th. To speak of the birth of a person who is no more ; as, 

Napoleon was born in Corsica. Napoleon Itaxb ne en Corse. 



552 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



PRETERITE DEFINITE. 

I finished or did I finished not or did I finish ? &c. 



finish, &c. 

je finis 
tu finis 
il or elle finit 

nous finimes 

vous finites 



did not finish. 

&c. 
je ne finis pas 
tu ne finis pas 
il or elle ne finit finit-il or elle 

pas 
nous ne finimes 



finis-je 
finis-tu 



fimmes-nous 



pas 



vous ne finites finites-vous 



pas 



ils or ellesfinirent. ils or elles ne fi- 
nirent pas. 



finirent-ils or 
elles ? 



did I not finish ? 
&c. 

ne finis-je pas 
ne finis-tu pas 
ne finit-il or elle 

pas 
ne finimes-nous 

pas 
ne finites-vous pas 

ne finirent-ils or 
elles pas ? 



1850. This tense expresses a fact which took place in the 
past at a specific time, of which nothing remains. 

Twenty-four hours, at least, must have elapsed since the fact 
spoken of took place, to allow the use of this tense. 

The unit of time, employed to designate the period when the 
fact spoken of took place, must be passed, to admit of the use 
of this tense ; thus, we cannot employ it in speaking of a fact 
which took place this week, this month, this year, &c, if the 
words week, month, year, &c, are the unit of time used in the 
sentence ; it must be, at least, last week, last month, last year, 
&c. ; as, 

I wrote to France last year, last J^crivis en France l'annee derniere, 
month, last week, yesterday. le mois dernier, la semaine der- 

niere, hier. 

The battle of Bunker Hill was the La bataille de Bunker Hill Jut le 
first step of the Americans to- premier pas des Americains vers 
wards their independence. Pindependance. 



PRETERITE INDEFINITE, 



I have finished, 
&c. 

j'aifini . 
tu as fini 
il or elle a fini 

nous avons fini 

vous avez fini 

ils or elles ont 
fini. 

1851. This 
in the past, but 



I have not finish- 
ed, &c. 

je n'ai pas fini 
tu n'as pas fini 
il or elle n'a pas 

fini 
nous n'avons pas 

fini 
vous n'avez pas 

fini 
ils or elles n'ont 

pas fini. 

tense is used to 
without regard 



have I finished ? 
&c. 

ai-je fini 
as-tu fini 
a-t-il or elle fini 

avons-nous fini 

avez-vous fini 

ont-ils or elles 
fini ? 



have I not finish- 
ed ? &c. 

n'ai-je pas fini 
n'as-tu pas fini 
n 'a-t-il or elle pas 

fini 
n'avons-nous pas 

fini 
n'avez-vous pas fini 

n'ont-ils or elles 
pas fini ? 



express a fact which took place 
to time ; its meaning is always 



FINIR, TO FINISH. 



553 



vague in reference to time ; the mind, in making use of it, 
not seeming to attach any importance to the period in the past, 
but only to the fact itself : 

I have answered your letter this J'ai rdpondu a. votre lettre cette 

week. semaine. 

We breakfasted this morning in the Nous avons dijeund ce matin a la 

country. campagne. 

This tense is that which is most generally used in conversa- 
tion or in writing letters, when no great precision is wanted in 
regard to time ; the preterite definite, on the contrary, is em- 
ployed in writing history, or relating facts, when it is neces- 
sary to specify in a precise manner the epoch when the facts 
took place. 





PLUPERFECT. 




I had finished, 
&c. 


I had not finished, 
&c. 


had I finished ? 
&c. 


had I not finished ? 
&c. 


j'avais fini 
tu avais fini 
il or elle avait 

fini 
nous avions fini 


je n'avais pas fini 
tu n'avais pas fini 
il or elle n'avait 

pas fini 
nous n'avions pas 

fini 


avais-je fini 
avais-tu fini 
avait-il or elle 

fini 
avions-nous fini 


n'avais-je pas fini 
n'avais-tu pas fini 
n'avait-il or elle 

pas fini 
n'avions-nous pas 

fini 


vous aviez fini 

ils or elles avaient 
fini. 


vous n'aviez pas 

fini 
ils or elles n'a- 

vaient pas fini. 


aviez-vous fini 

avaient-ils or 
elles fini ? 


n 'aviez-vous pas 

fini 
n'avaient-ils or 

elles pas fini ? 



1852. This tense is used to express a fact which happened 
before another fact which is itself past, but without defining in 
a particular manner at what time, before the other, the fact 
took place : 

I had dined when he came. J'avais dine quand il arriva. 

This sentence expresses the fact, that I had dined before he 
came, but without mentioning how long before. 



PRETERITE ANTERIOR. 



I had finished, 
&c. 

j'eus fini 

tu eus fini 

il or elle eut fini 



I had not fin- 
ished, &c. 



had I finished ? had I not finished ? 
&c. &c. 



je n'eus pas fini eus-je fini n'eus-je pas fini 

tu n'eus pas fini eus-tu fini n'eus-tu pas fini 

il or elle n'eut eut-il or elle fini n'eut-il or elle pas 
pas fini fini 

47 



554 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



nous eumes fini nous n'eumes pas eumes-nous fini n'eumes-nous pas 
fini fini 

vous eutes fini vous n'eutes pas eutes-vous fini n'eutes-vous pas 
fini fini 

ils or elles eurent ils or elles n'eu- eurent-ils or elles n'eurent ils or elles 

fini. rent pas fini. fini ? pas fini ? 

1853. This tense expresses, that a fact took place before 
another fact which is past, but immediately before : 

When I had finished all my busi- Quand j'ews fini toutes mes affaires 
ness I went away. je partis. 

The meaning of this sentence is, that as soon as I had fin- 
ished my business I went away : 

I had done ploughing my field be- Tens laboure mon champ avant 
fore you. vous. 

This sentence signifies, that we were ploughing our fields at 
the same time, but I had done first. 



FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 



I shall or will 
finish, &c. 

je finirai 
tu finiras 
il or elle finira 

nous finirons 

vous finirez 

ils or elles fini- 
ront. 



I shall or will 
not finish, &c. 

je ne finirai pas 
tu ne finiras pas 
il or elle ne finira 

pas 
nous ne finirons 

pas 
vous ne finirez 

pas 
ils or elles ne 

finiront pas. 



shall or will I 
finish? &c. 

finirai-je 
finiras-tu 
finira-t-il or elle 

finirons-nous 

finirez-vous 

finiront-ils or- 
elles ? 



shall or will I not 
finish ? &c. 

ne finirai-je pas 
ne finiras-tu pas 
ne finira-t-il or 

elle pas 
ne finirons-nous 

pas 
ne finirez-vous pas 

ne finiront-ils or 
elles pas ? 



1854. We use this tense to express that a fact will take 
place at a time which has not yet come : 

I shall receive my money to-morrow, Je recevrai demain mon argent, et je 
and I will start for Paris. partirai pour Paris. 

FUTURE ANTERIOR. 



I shall or will 
have finished, 
&c. 

j'aurai fini 
tu auras fini 
il or elle aura 
fini 



I shall or will shall or will I shall or will I not 
not have fin- have finished ? have finished ? 
ished, &c. &c. &c. 



je n'aurai pas fini aurai-je fini 

tu n'auras pas fini auras-tu fini 

il or elle n'aura aura-t-il or elle 
pas fini fini 



n'aurai-je pas fini 
n'auras-tu pas fini 
n 'aura-t-il or elle 
pas fini 



FINIR, TO FINISH. 555 

nous aurons fini nous n'aurons aurons-nous fini n'aurons-nous pas 

pas fini fini 

vous aurez fini vous n'aurez pas aurez-vous fini n'aurez-vous pas 

fini fini 

ils or elles auront ils or elles n'au- auront-ils or elles n'auront-ils or 

fini. ront pas fini. fini ? elles pas fini ? 

1855. This tense indicates the future in reference to the 
past, by showing that a fact will take place when another fact 
shall have taken place : 

I will go and see yon when I have J'irai vous voir quand yaurai dine. 
dined. 

CONDITIONAL MOOD. 

PRESENT. 

I should, would, I should, would, should, would, should, would, 
could, or might could, or might could, or might could, or might 
finish, &c. not finish, &c. I finish ? &c. I not finish ? &c. 

je finirais je ne finirais pas finirais-je ne finirais je pas 

tu finirais tu ne finirais pas finirais-tu ne finirais-tu pas 

il or elle finirait il or elle ne fini- finirait-il or elle ne finirait-il or 

rait pas elle pas 

nous finirions nous ne finirions finirions-nous ne finirions-nous 

pas pas 

vous finiriez vous ne finiriez finiriez-vous ne finiriez-vous 

pas pas 

ils or elles fini- ils or elles ne finiraient-ils or ne finiraient-ils 

raient. finiraient pas. elles? or elles pas ? 

1856. This tense serves to express that a fact would take 
place at a time, present or future, provided some condition 
should be accomplished : 

If I had dined, I would go out with Si j'avais dine, je sortirais avec 

you. vous. 

If the weather were fine to-morrow, Si le terns etait beau demain, nous 

we would go into the country. irions a la campagne. 

CONDITIONAL PAST. 

I should, would, I should, would, should, would, should, would, 
could, or might could, or might could, or might could, or might 
have finished, not have fin- I have finished ? I not have fin- 

&c. ished, &c. &c. ished ? &c. 

j'aurais fini je n'aurais pas aurais-je fini n'aurais-je pas fini 

fini 

tu aurais fini tu n'aurais pas aurais-tu fini n'aurais-tu pas fini 

fini 

il or elle aurait il or elle n'aurait aurait-il or elle n'aurait-il or elle 

fini pas fini fini pas fini 



556 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

nous aurions fini nous n'aurions aurions-nous fini n'aurions-nous pas 
pas fini fini 

vous auriez fini vous n'auriez pas auriez-vous fini n'auriez-vous pas 
fini fini 

ils or elles au- ils or elles n'au- auraient-ils or n'auraient-ils or 
raient fini. raient pas fini. elles fini ? elles pas fini ? 

1857. This tense is used to express that a fact would have 
taken place in the past on some condition : 

I would have been in the country, if Z'aurais Hi a la campagne, si vous 
you had asked me. m'en aviez prie. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 



do finish, &c. 

finis 

qu'il or qu'elle finisse 

finissons 

finissez 

qu'il or qu'elles finissent. 



do not finish, &c. 

ne finis pas 

qu'il or qu'elle ne finisse pas 

ne finissons pas 

ne finissez pas 

qu'ils or qu'elles ne finissent 



1858. This mood serves to express the present in reference 
to the act of commanding-, and a future in reference to what is 
commanded : 



Work in order to learn. 

Be wise in order to be happy. 



Travaillez a vous instruire. 
Soyez sage pour 6tre heureux. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



that I may finish, &c. 

que je finisse 

que tu finisses 

qu'il or qu'elle finisse 

que nous finissions 

que vous finissiez 

qu'ils or qu'elles finissent. 



that I may not finish, &c. 

que je finisse 

que tu finisses 

qu'il or qu'elle finisse 

que nous finissions 

que vous finissiez 

qu'ils or qu'elles finissent, 



1859. This tense, which is always preceded by another 
verb, expressed or understood, is used to express a time 
present or future, according to the meaning of the sentence. 

I wish you to come and see me. Je veux que vous veniez me voir. 

(Present.) 
I doubt much that he comes. Je doute fort qu'il vienne. (Future). 



FINIR, TO FINISH. 557 



IMPERFECT. 

that I might finish, &c. that I might not finish, &c. 

que je finisse que je ne finisse pas 

que tu finisses que tu ne finisses pas 

qu'il or qu'elle finit qu'il or qu'elle ne finit pas 

que nous finissions que nous ne finissions pas 

que vous finissiez que vous ne finissiez pas 

qu'ils or qu'elles finissent. qu'ils or qu'elles ne finissent pas. 

1860. This tense is most generally applied to a fact which 
is past, but it sometimes refers to a fact in the future, accord- 
ing to the sense of the sentence : 

I wished you had come with me Je desirais que vous vinssiez hier 

yesterday to pay a visit. faire une visite avec moi. (Past.) 

I wished he might come next week. Je desirais qu'il vint la semaine 

prochaine. (Future.) 

PRETERITE. 

that I may have finished, &c. that I may not have finished, &c. 

que j'aie fini que je n'aie pas fini 

que tu aies fini que tu n'aies pas fini 

qu'il or qu'elle ait fini qu'il or qu'elle n'ait pas fini 

que nous ayons fini que nous n'ayons pas fini 

que vous ayez fini que vous n'ayez pas fini 

qu'ils or qu'elles aient fini. qu'ils or qu'elles n'aient pas fini. 

1861. This tense serves to express a fact which is past, 
but also, sometimes, a fact in the future, according to the 
sense of the sentence : 

I had to finish my work this morn- II a fallu que j'cze fini mon ouvrage 

ing before six o'clock. ce matin avantsixheures. (Pas°.) 

I must have my work done before II faut que i'aie fini mon ouvrage 

twelve o'clock. avant midi. (Future.) 

PLUPERFECT. 

that I might have finished, &c. that I might not have finished, &c. 

que j'eusse fini que je n'eusse pas fini 

que tu eusses fini que tu n'eusses pas fini 

qu'il or qu'elle eut fini qu'il or qu'elle n'eut pas fini 

que nous eussions fini que nous n'eussions pas fini 

que vous eussiez fini que vous n'eussiez pas fini 

qu'ils or qu'elles eussent fini. qu'ils or qu'elles n'eussent pas fini. 

1862. This tense, like the two preceding, serves to ex- 
press a past or a future, according to the meaning of the 
sentence : 

47* 



558 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

I should have liked that you had Vaurais desire que vous fussiez venu 

come to my house yesterday. hier chez moi. (Past.) 

I did not believe you would have Je ne croyais pas que vous eussiez 

done so soon. sitotjini. (Future.) 

1863. All the verbs of this conjugation, whose termina- 
tions, in all their tenses and persons, are similar to those of 
finir, are regular. They are two hundred and two in num- 
ber. The others are irregular, and will be found conjugat- 
ed in this grammar to the number of ninety-two. Several 
grammarians, with the idea of reducing the number of the ir- 
regular verbs of this conjugation, have found proper to group 
them into four different classes, but without any other result for 
the pupil than to create a confusion in his mind ; we shall not 
adopt this plan, therefore, but shall conjugate all the irregular 
verbs of this conjugation, as well as those of the others, sepa- 
rately, according to their alphabetical order. 

The best way to ascertain whether a verb of this conjugation 
is regular or not, is to refer to its present participle. If its ter- 
mination in that tense is issant, the verb is regular ; otherwise 
it is irregular. 



THIRD CONJUGATION. RECEVOIR, 

1864. Conjugation of the Verbs ending in OIR. 
INFINITIVE MOOD. 









PRESENT. 


to receive 






not to receive 


recevoir. 






ne pas recevoir, ne recevoir pas 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 


receiving 






not receiving 


recevant. 






ne recevant pas. 

PAST PARTICIPLE. 


received 








Re5u, ue, 


us, 


ues. 


- 



RECEVOIR, TO RECEIVE. 



559 



COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT OF THE INFINITIVE AND FAST 
PARTICIPLE. 

to have received not to have received 

avoir regu. n'avoir pas regu. 

COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT AND PAST PARTICIPLE. 

having received not having received 

ayant regu. n'ayant pas regu. 

INDICATIVE. 



PRESENT. 



Affirmative. 

I receive, &c. 

Je regois 
tu regois 
il or elle regoit 



nous recevons 

vous recevez 

ils or elles regoi- 
vent. 



Negative. Interrogative. 



I do not receive, 
&c. 

Je ne regois pas 
tu ne regois pas 
il or elle ne re- 
goit pas 
nous ne rece- 
vons pas 
vous ne recevez 

pas 
ils or elles ne re- 
goivent pas. 



do I receive ? 
&c. 

regois-je 
regois-tu 
recoit-il or elle 



recevons-nous 
recevez-vous 

regoivent-ils or 

elles ? 



Negative and 
Interrogative. 

do I not receive ? 
&c. 

ne reCois-je pas 
ne regois-tu pas 
ne recoit-il or elle 

pas 
ne recevons-nous 

pas 
ne recevez-vous 

pas 
ne regoivent-ils or 

elles pas ? 



I received or was 
receiving, &c. 

je recevais 

tu recevais 

il or elle rece- 

vait 
nous recevions 

vous receviez 

ils or elles rece- 
vaient. 



IMPERFECT. 

I received not or did I receive or 
was not receiv- was I receiv- 
ing, &c. ing ? &c. 

je ne recevais recevais-je 

pas 

tu ne recevais recevais-tu 



I did receive, 
&c. 

je regus 
tu regus 
il or elle regut 



pas 

il or elle ne re- recevait-il or elle 

cevait pas 

nous ne rece- recevions-nous 

vions pas 

vous ne rece- receviez-vous 

viez pas 
ils or elles ne re- recevaient-ils or 

cevaient pas. elles ? 

PRETERITE DEFINITE. 

I did not receive, did I receive ? 
&c. &c. 

je ne regus pas regus-je 

tu ne regus pas regus-tu 

il or elle ne re- regut-il or elle 
gut pas 



did I not receive 
or was I not re- 
ceiving ? &c. 

ne recevais-je pas 
ne recevais-tu pas 

ne recevait-il or 

elle pas 
ne recevions-nous 

pas 
ne receviez-vous 

pas 
ne recevaient-ils 

or elles pas ? 



did I not not re- 
ceive ? &c. 

ne regus-je pas 
ne regus-tu pas 
ne regut il or elle 
pas 



560 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

nous recjumes nous ne refines re^mes nous ne resumes-nous 

pas pas 

vous rentes vous ne rentes re9utes-vous ne re9iites-vous 

pas pas 

ils or elles re^u- ils or ellesne re- re^urent-ils or ne rec^urent-ils or 

rent. ^urent pas. elles ? elles pas ? 

PRETERITE INDEFINITE. 

I have received, I have not receiv- have I received ? have I not receiv- 

&c. ed, &c. &c. ed ? &c. 

j'ai recu je n'ai pas re^u ai-je recu n'ai-je pas re^u 

tu as re^u tu n'as pas re<^u as-tu re9u n'as-tu pas recu 

il or elle a re^u il or elle n'apas a-t-il or elle re- n'a-t-il or elle pas 

recu cu re9u 

nous avons recu nous n'avons pas avons-nous re9u n'avons-nous pas 

re9u re9u 

vous avez re9u vous n'avez pas avez-vous re9u n'avez-vous pas 

re9u re9u 

ils or elles ont ils or elles n'ont ont-ils or elles n'ont-ils or elles 

re9u. pas re9u. re9u ? pas re9u ? 

PLUPERFECT. 

I had received, I had not receiv- had I received? had I not receiv- 

&c. ed, &c. &c. ed ? &c. 

j'avais re9u je n'avais pas re- avais-je re9u n'avais-je pas re9u 

tu avais re9u tu n'avais pas re- avais-tu re9u n'avais-tu pas re9u 

cu 

il or elle avait il or elle n'avait avait-il or elle n'avait-il or elle 

re9u pas re9u re9u pas re9u 

nous avions recu nous n'avions pas avions-nous re9u n'avions-nous pas 

re9u re9u 

vous aviez re9u vous n'aviez pas aviez-vous re9u n'aviez-vous pas 

re9u re9u 

ils or elles avai- ils or elles n'avai- avaient-ils or n'avaient-ils or 

ent re9u. ent pas re9u. elles re9u ? elles pas re9u ? 

PRETERITE ANTERIOR. 

I had received, I had not receiv- had I received ? had I not receiv- 

&c. ed, &c. &c. ed ? fee. 

j'eus re9u je n'eus pas re- eus-je re9u n'eus-je pas re9u 

9u 

tu eus re9u tu n'eus pas re- eus-tu re9u n'eus-tu pas re9u 

9u 

il or elle eut re- il or elle n'eut eut-il or elle re- n'eut-il or elle pas 

9U pas re9u 9U re9u 

nous euraes re- nous n'eurnes eumes-nous re- n'eumes-nous pas 

9u pas re9u 9u re9u 

vous eutes re9u vous n'eutes pas eutes-vous re9u n'eutes-vous pas 

re9u re9u 

ils or elles eurent ils or illes n'eu- eurent-ils or el- n'eurent-ils or el- 

re9u. rent pas re9u. les re9u ? les pas re9u ? 



RECEVOIR, TO RECEIVE. 



561 



I shall or will re- 
ceive, &c. 

je recevrai 

tu recevras 

il or elle recev- 

ra 
nous recevrons 

vous recevrez 

ils or elles re- 
cevront. 



FUTURE PRESENT. 

I shall or will shall or will I 
not receive, &c. receive ? &c. 



je ne recevrai 
pas 

tu ne recevras 
pas 

il or elle ne re- 
cevra pas 

nous ne recev- 
rons pas 

vous ne recev- 
rez pas 

ils or elles ne 
recevront pas. 



recevrai-je 

recevras-tu 

recevra-t-il or 

elle 
recevrons-nous 

recevrez-vous 

recevront-ils or 
elles ? 



shall or will I not 
receive? &c. 

ne recevrai-je 

pas 
ne recevras-tu 

pas 
ne recevra-t-il or 

elle pas 
ne recevrons-nous 

pas 
ne recevrez-vous 

pas 
ne recevront-ils or 

elles pas ? 



FUTURE ANTERIOR. 



I shall or will 
have receiv- 
ed, &c. 

j'aurai recju 

tu auras re^u 

il or elle aura 

recu 
nous aurons recu 

vous aurez recu 

ils or elles au- 
ront recu. 



I shall or will 
not have re- 
ceived, &c. 

je n'aurai pas 

recu 
tu n'auras pas 

recu 
il or elle n'aura 

pas recu 
nous n aurons 

pas recu 
vous n'aurezpas 

recu 
ils or elles n'au- 

ront pas recu. 



shall or will I 
have receiv- 
ed ? &c. 

aurai-je re^u 

auras-tu re$u 

aura-t-il or elle 

recu 
aurons-nous re^u 

aurez-vous recu 

auront-ils or el- 
les recu ? 



shall or will I not 
have received ? 
&c. 

n'aurai-je pas 
recu 

n'auras-tu pas 
recu 

n'aura-t-il or elle 
pas recu 

n'aurons-nous pas 
re 911 

n'aurez-vous pas 
recu 

n 1 nuront-ils or el- 
les pas re$u ? 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 



PRESENT. 



I should, would, I should, would, should, would, should, would, 
could, or might could, or might could, or might could, or might 
receive, &c. not receive, &c. I receive ? &c. I not receive ? &c, 

je recevrais 
tu recevrais 



il or elle recev- 

rait 
nous recevrions 

vous recevriez 

ils or elles re- 
cevraient. 



je ne recevrais 
pas 

tu ne recevrais 
pas 

il or elle ne re- 
cevrait pas 

nous ne recev- 
rions pas 

vous ne recev- 
riez pas 

ils or elles ne 
recevraint pas. 



recevrais-je ne recevrais-je 

pas 
recevrais-tu ne recevrais-tu 

pas 
recevrait-il or ne recevrait-il or 

elle elle pas 

recevrions-nous ne recevrions- 

nous pas 
reeevriez-vous ne recevriez-vous 

pas 
recevraient-ils or ne recevraient-ils 
elles ? or elles pas ? 



562 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



PAST. 



I should, would, 
could, or might 
have received, 
&c. 

j'aurais recu 
tu-aurais recu 

il or elle aurait 
recu 

nous aurions re- 
cu 

vous auriez recu 

ils or elles au- 
raient recu. 



I should, would, 
could, or might 
not have re- 
ceived, &c. 

je n'aurais pas 

recu 
tu n'aurais pas 

recu 
il or elle n'au- 

rait pas recu 
nous n'aurions 

pas recu 
vous n'auriez pas 

recu 
ils or elles n'au- 

raient pas recu. 



should, would, 
could, or might 
I have receiv- 
ed? 

aurais-je recu 
aurais-tu recu 

aurait-il or elle 
recu 

aurions-nous re- 
cu 

auriez-vous re- 

auraient-ils or 
elles recu ? 



should, would, 
could, or might 
I not have re- 
ceived ? &c. 

n'aurais-je pas 

recu 
n'aurais-tu pas 

recu 
n'aurait-il or elle 

pas recu 
n'aurions-nous pa3 

recu 
n'auriez-vous pas 

recu 
n'auraient-ils or 

elles pas recu ? 



do receive, &c. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

do not receive, &c. 



recois 

qu*il or qu'elle ne recoive 

recevons 

recevez 

qu'ils or qu'elles recoivent. 



ne recois. pas 

qu'il or qu'elle ne recoive pas 

ne recevons pas 

ne recevez pas 

qu'ils or qu'elles recoivent pas. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



PRESENT. 



that I may receive, &c. 

que je recoive 

que tu revives 

qu'il or qu'elle recoive 

que nous recevions 

que vous receviez 

qu'ils or qu'elles recoivent 



that I may not receive, &c. 

que je ne recoive pas 

que tu ne recoives pas 

qu'il or qu'elle ne recoive pas 

que nous ne recevions pas 

que vous ne receviez pas 

qu'ils or qu'elles ne recoivent pas. 



IMPERFECT. 



that I might receive, &c. 

que je recusse 

que tu re^usses 

qu'il or qu'elle recut 

que nous recussions 

que vous recussiez 

qu'ils or qu'elles recussent 



that I might not receiye, &c. 

que je ne recusse pas 

que tu ne recusses pas 

qu'il or qu'elle ne recut pas 

que nous ne recussions pas 

que vous ne recussiez pas 

qu'ils or qu'elles ne recussent pas. 



RECEVOIR, TO RECEIVE. 563 

PRETERITE. 

that I may have received, &c. that I may not have received, &c. 

que j'aie regu que je n'aie pas regu 

que tu aies regu que tu n'aies pas regu 

qu'il or qu'elle ait regu qu'il or qu'elle n'ait pas regu 

que nous ayons regu que nous n'ayons pas regu 

que vous ayez regu que vous n'ayez pas regu 

qu'ils or qu'elles aient regu. qu'ils or qu'elles n'aient pas regu. 

PLUPERFECT. 

that I might have received, &c. that I might not have received, &c. 

que j'eusse regu que je n'eusse pas regu 

que tu eusses regu que tu n'eusses pas regu 

qu'il or qu'elle eut regu qu'il or qu'elle n'eut pas regu 

que nous eussions regu que nous n'eussions pas regu 

que vous eussiez regu que vous eussiez pas regu 

qu'ils or qu'elles eussent regu. qu'ils or qu'elles n'eussent pas regu. 



1865. All the verbs of this conjugation, to the number of 
two hundred and thirty, end in oir in the infinitive. Of 
these, seven only are regular ; they are easily recognized by 
their termination in evoir ; the others are called irregular, and 
will be conjugated in this grammar in all their tenses and per- 
sons. 

The seven regular verbs of this conjugation are the follow- 
ing : 

Apercevoir, to perceive. 

Concevoir, to conceive. 

Decevoir, to deceive. 

Percevoir, to collect taxes. 

Recevoir, to receive. 

Devoir, to owe. 

Redevoir, to owe again. 

1866. When the letter c, which is found in the first five 
verbs of this list, is followed, in the conjugation of the verb, 
by any of the vowels a, o, or w, a cedilla is placed under it, 
to change the hard sound that c has before these vowels into the 
soft sound which is required by the pronunciation. 

1867. In the past participle of the verb devoir , which is du, 
the last letter, w, takes a circumflex accent, to distinguish this 
word from the contracted article du, of the ; the accent is not 
kept in the feminine. The past participle redu, from redevoir^ 
takes no accent. 



564 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



FOURTH CONJUGATION. RENDRE. 

1868. Conjugation of the Verbs ending in re. 
INFINITIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT. 



to render 


not to render 


rendre. 


ne pas rendre. 




PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 


rendering 


not rendering 


rendant. 


ne rendant pas. 




PAST PARTICIPLE. 


rendered 




rendu. 






COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT. 


to have rendered 


not to have rendered 


avoir rendu. 


n'avoir pas rendu. 


COMPOUND 


OF THE PRESENT AND PAST PAP. 


having rendered 


not having rendered 


ayant rendu. 


n'ayant pas rendu. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



PRESENT. 

Affirmative. Negative. Interrogative. 

I render, &c. I do not render, do I render ? &c. 
&c. 

je rends je ne rends pas est-ce que je 

rends 

tu rends tu ne rends pas rends-tu 

il or elle rend il or elle ne rend rend-il or elle 

pas 

nous rendons nous ne rendons rendons-nous 

pas 

vous rendez vous ne rendez rendez-vous 

pas 

ils or elles ren- ils or elles neren- rendent-ils or 

dent. dent pas. elles ? 



Negative and 
Interrogative* 

do I not render ? 
&c. 

est-ce que je ne 

rends pas 
ne rends-tu pas 
ne rend-il or elle 

pas 
ne rendons-nous 

pas 
ne rendez-vous pas 

ne rendent-ils or 
elles pas ? 



RENDRE, TO RENDER. 



565 



IMPERFECT. 



I rendered or 
was render- 
ing, &c. 

je rendais 
tu rendais 
il or elle rendait 

nous rendions 

vous rendiez 

ils or elles ren- 
daient. 



I rendered not or 
was not ren- 
dering-, &c. 

je ne rendais pas 
tune rendais pas 
il or elle ne ren- 
dait pas 
nous ne rendions 

pas 
vous ne rendiez 

pas 
ils or elles ne 
rendaient pas. 



did I render or 
was I render- 
ing ? &c. 

rendais-je 
rendais-tu 
rendait-il or elle 

rendions-nous 

rendiez-vous 

rendaient-ils or 
elles ? 



did I not render or 
was I not render- 
ing ? &c. 

ne rendais-je pas 
ne rendais-tu pas 
ne rendait-il or elle 

pas 
ne rendions-nous 

pas 
ne rendiez-vous 

pas 
ne rendaient-ils or 

elles pas ? 



PRETERITE DEFINITE. 



I rendered or did 
render, &c. 

je rendis 
tu rendis 
il or elle rendit 

nousrendimes 

vous rendltes 

ils or elles ren- 
dirent. 



I rendered not or 
did not ren- 
der, &c. 

je ne rendis pas 
tu ne rendis pas 
il or elle ne ren- 
dit pas 
nousne rendimes 

pas 
vous ne rendltes 

pas 
ils or elles ne 
rendirent pas. 



did I render ? 
&c. 

rendis je 
rendis-tu 
rendit-il or elle 

rendimes-nous 

rendites-vous 

rendirent-ils or 
elles ? 



did I not render ? 
&c. 

ne rendis-je pas 
ne rendis-tu pas 
ne rendit-il or elle 

pas 
ne rendimes-nous 

pas 
ne rendites-vous 

pas 
ne rendirent-ils or 

elles pas ? 



PRETERITE INDEFINITE. 



I have rendered, 
&c. 

j'ai rendu 

tu as rendu 

il or elle a rendu 

nous avons rendu 

vous avez- rendu 

ils or elles ont 
rendu. 



I have not ren- 
dered, &c. 

je n'ai pas rendu 
tu n'as pas rendu 
il or elle n'a pas 

rendu 
nous n'avons pas 

rendu 
vous n'avez pas 

rendu 
ils or elles n'ont 

pas rendu. 



have I rendered ? have I not render- 
&c. ed ? &c. 



ai-je rendu 

as-tu rendu 

a-t-il or elle ren- 
du 

avons-nous ren- 
du 

avez-vous rendu 

ont-ils or elles 
rendu ? 



n 'ai-je pas rendu 
n 'as-tu pas rendu 
n'a-t-il or elle pas 

rendu 
n'avons-nous pas 

rendu 
n 'avez-vous 

rendu 
n'ont-ils or elles 

pas rendu ? 



pas 



PLUPERFECT. 



I had rendered. 
&c. 

j'avais rendu 

tu avais rendu 

il or elle avait 
rendu 



I had not render- had I rendered ? had I not render- 



ed, &c. 



&c. 



je n'avais pas avais-je rendu 

rendu 
tu n'avais pas avais-tu rendu 

rendu 
il or elle n 'avait avait-il or elle 

pas rendu rendu 

48 



ed ? &c. 

n'avais-je pas ren- 
du 

n 'avais-tu pas ren- 
du 

n'avait-il or elle 
pas rendu 



566 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



nous avions ren- 
du 
vous aviez rendu 

ils or elles avai- 
ent rendu. 



I had rendered, 
&c. 

j'eus rendu 
tu eus rendu 

il or elle eut ren- 
du 

nous eumes ren- 
du 

vous eutes rendu 

ils or elles eu- 
rent rendu. 



nous n avions pas 
rendu 

vous n'aviez pas 
rendu 

ils or elles n'a- 
vaient pas ren- 
du. 



avions-nous ren- 
du 
aviez-vous rendu 

avaient-ils or elles 
rendu ? 



PRETERITE ANTERIOR. 



I had not render- 
ed, &c. 

je n'eus pas ren- 
du 

tu n'eus pas ren- 
du 

il or elle n'eut 
pas rendu 

nous n'eumespas 
rendu 

vous n'eutes pas 
rendu 

ils or elles n'eu- 
rent pas rendu. 



had I rendered ? 
&c. 

eus-je rendu 

eus-tu rendu 

eut-il or elle ren- 
du 
eumes-nous ren- 

A du 
eutes-vous rendu 

eurent-ils or elles 
rendu ? 



n avions-nous pas 

rendu 
n'aviez-vous pas 

rendu 
n'avaient-ils or 

elles pas rendu ? 



had I not render- 
ed ? &c. 

n'eus-je pas rendu 
n'eus-tu pas rendu 

n 'eut-il or elle pas 

rendu 
n'eumes-nous pas 

rendu 
n'eutes-vous pas 

rendu 
n 'eurent-ils or elles 

pas rendu ? 



I shall or will 
render, &c. 

je rendrai 
lu rendras 
il or elle rendra 

nous rendrons 

vous rendrez 

ils or elles ren- 
dront. 



FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 

I shall or will shall or will I 

not render, render ? &c. 
&c. 

je ne rendrai pas rendrai-je 

tu ne rendras pas rendras-tu 

il or elle ne ren- rendra-t-il or elle 

dra pas 

nous ne rendrons rendrons-nous 

pas 

vous ne rendrez rendrez-vous 

pas 

ils or elles ne rendront-ils or 

rendront pas elles ? 



shall or will I not 
render ? &c. 

ne rendrai-je pas 
ne rendras-tu pas 
ne rendra-t-il or 

elle pas 
ne rendrons-nous 

pas 
ne rendrez-vous 

pas 
ne rendront-ils or 

elles pas ? 



I shall or will 
have render- 
ed, &c. 

j'aurai rendu 
tu auras rendu 

il or elle aura 
rendu 

nous aurons ren- 
du 

vous aurez ren- 
du 

ils or elles au- 
ront rendu. 



FUTURE ANTERIOR. 

I shall or will not shall or will I 
have rendered, have render- 
&c. ed ? &c. 



shall or will I not 
have rendered ? 
&c. 



je n'aurai pas aurai-je rendu n'aurai-je pas ren- 

rendu du 

tu n'auras pas auras-tu rendu n'auras-tu pas ren- 

rendu du 

il or elle n'aura aura-t-il or elle n'aura-t-il or elle 

pas rendu rendu pasrendu 

nous n'aurons aurons-nous ren- n'aurons-nous pas 

pas rendu du rendu 

vous n'aurez pas aurez-vous ren- n'aurez-vous pas 

rendu du rendu 

ils or elles n'au- auront-ilso?' elles n'auront-ils or elles 

rontpasrendu. rendu? pasrendu? 



RENDRE, TO RENDER. 



567 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 



PRESENT. 



I should, would, 
could, or might 
render, &c. 

je rendrais 
tu rendrais 
il or elle ren- 

drait 
nous rendrions 

vous rendriez 

ils or elles ren- 
draient. 



I should, would, 
could, or might 
not render, &c. 

je ne rendrais pas 
tu ne rendrais pas 
il or elle ne ren- 

drait pas 
nous ne rendrions 

pas 
vous ne rendriez 

pas 
ils or elles ne ren- 

draient pas. 



should, would, 
could, or might 
I render ? &c. 

rendrais-je 
rendrais-tu 
rendrait-ilor elle 

rendrions-nous 

rendriez-vous 

rendraient-ils or 
elles ? 



should, would, 
could, or might 
I not render? &c. 

ne rendrais-je pas 
ne rendrais-tu pas 
ne rendrait-il or 

elle pas 
ne rendrions-nous 

pas 
ne rendriez-vous 

pas 
ne rendraient-ils or 

elles pas ? 



I should, would, 
could, or might 
have rendered, 
&c. 

j'aurais rendu 
tu aurais rendu 

il or elle aurait 
rendu 

nous aurions ren- 
du 

vous auriez ren- 
du 

ils or elles au- 
raient rendu. 



I should, would, 
could, or might 
not have ren- 
dered, &c. 

je n'aurais pas 

rendu 
tu n'aurais pas 

rendu 
il or elle n'au- 

rait pas rendu 
nous n'aurions 

pas rendu 
vous n'auriezpas 

rendu 
ils or elles n'au- 

raientpas ren- 
du. 



should, would, 
could, or might 
I have render- 
ed? &c. 

aurais-je rendu 
aurais-tu rendu 

aurait-il or elle 
rendu 

aurions-nous ren- 
du 

auriez-vous ren- 
du 

auraient-ils or 
elles rendu ? 



should, would, 
could, or might I 
not have render- 
ed ? &c. 

n'aurais-je pas ren- 
du 

n'aurais-tu pas ren- 
du 

n'aurait-il or elle 
pas rendu 

n'aurions-nous pas 
rendu 

n'auriez-vous pas 
rendu 

n'auraient-ils or 
elles pas rendu ? 



do render, &.c. 

rends 

qu'il or qu'elle rende 

rendons 

rendez 

qu'ils or qu'elles rendent 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

do not render, &c. 



ne rends pas 

qu'il or qu'elles ne rende pas 

ne rendons pas 

ne rendez pas 

qu'ils or qu'elles ne rendent pas. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



PRESENT. 



that I may render, &c. 

que je rende 

que tu rendes 

qu'il or qu'elle rende 

que nous rendions 

que vous rendiez 

qu'ils or qu'elles rendent. 



that I may not render, &c. 

que je ne rende pas 

que tu ne rendes pas 

qu'il or qu'elle ne rende pas 

que nous ne rendions pas 

que vous ne rendiez pas 

qu'ils or qu'elles ne rendent pas. 



563 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



that I might render, &c. 

que je rendisse 

que tu rendisses 

qu'il or qu'elle rendit 

que nous rendissions 

que vous rendissiez 

qu'ils or qu'elles rendissent. 



that I may have rendered, &c. 

que j'aie rendu 

que tu aies rendu 

qu'il or qu'elle ait rendu 

que nous ayons rendu 

que vous ayez rendu 

qu'ils or qu'elles aient rendu. 



IMPERFECT. 

that I might not render, &c. 

que je ne rendisse pas 

que tu ne rendisses pas 

qu'il or qu'elle ne rendit pas 

que nous ne rendissions pas 

que vous ne rendissiez pas 

qu'ils or qu'elles ne rendissent pas. 

PRETERITE. 

that I may not have rendered, &c. 

que je n'aie pas rendu 

que tu n'aies pas rendu 

qu'il or qu'elle n'ait pas rendu 

que nous n'ayons pas rendu 

que vous n'ayez pas rendu 

qu'ils or qu'elles n'aient pas rendu, 



PLUPERFECT. 



that 1 might have rendered, &c. that I might not have rendered, &e. 



que j'eusse rendu 

que tu eusses rendu 

qu'il or qu'elle eut rendu 

que nous eussions rendu 

que vous eussiez rendu 

qu'ils or qu'elles eussent rendu. 



que je n'eusse pas rendu 
que tu n'eusses pas rendu 
qu'il or qu'elle n'eut pas rendu 
que nous n'eussions pas rendu 
que vous n'eussiez pas rendu 
qu'ils or qu'elles n'eussent pas rendu. 



1869. All the verbs of this conjugation end in re in the 
present of the infinitive, as rendre, to render. 

They are about two hundred and forty in number. 

Those which are conjugated like rendre, in all their tenses 
and persons, are called regular ; forty of them belong to this 
class ; they are the following : 



Appendre (not 

used), 
Attendre, 
Confondre, 
Corresponds, 
Defendre, 
Demordre, 
Dependre, 



Descendre, 

Detendre, 

Detordre, 



to hang up. 

to wait, to expect. 

to confound. 

to correspond. 

to defend. 

to give up. 

to take down, or 

to depend on, 

upon, 
to go down, to 

descend, &c. 
to unbend, to 

loosen, 
to untwist. 



Distendre, 

Entendre, 

Epandre, 
Etendre, 
Fend re, 
Fondre, 
Mevendre (not 

used), 
Mordre, 
Mor fondre, 
Parfondre (not 

used), 
Pendre, 



to distend, to 
extend. 

to hear, to under- 
stand. 

to spread. 

to spread. 

to split. 

to melt. 

to undersell. 

to bite. 

to be very cold. 

to melt equally. 

to hang. 



OTHER VERBS ENDING IN RE. 



569 



to lose. 


Revendre, 


to sell again. 


to lay eggs. 


Sons entendre, 


to understand. 


to cut in two. 


Survendre (not 


to sell too dear. 


to pretend. 


used), 




to split again. 


Suspendre, 


to suspend. 


to melt again. 


Tendre, 


to hold out, to 


to bite again. 




bend. 


to render. 


Tondre, 


to shear. 


to spell, to shed. 


Tordre, 


to twist. 


to answer. 


Vendre, 


to sell. 


to twist again. 







Perdre, 

Pondre, 

Pourfendre, 

Pretendre, 

Refendre, 

Refondre, 

Remordre, 

Rendre, 

Repandre, 

Repondre, 

Retordre* 

All the other verbs of this conjugation are irregular, and 
will be conjugated in this grammar. 

1870. There is a sure method of ascertaining whether a 
verb of the fourth conjugation is regular or not ; if the pres- 
ent participle ends in dant, the verb is regular ; if not, the verb 
is irregular. 

1871. It must be remembered, that when the first person 
singular of the present of the indicative, of any verb, has only 
one syllable, we cannot use it interrogatively ; thus, we cannot 
say, rends~je 9 do I sell ? prends-je 9 do I take ? &c. ; the 
only exceptions are : 



Fais-je ? 
Dis-je ? 



Dois- 



je 



Vois-je ? 
Ai-je ? 
Vais-je ? 



Do I do ? 
Do I say ? 
Do I owe ? 
Do I see ? 
Have I ? 



Do I 



go 



This remark is applicable to nearly all the verbs of the 
fourth conjugation, whatever may be the number of their sylla- 
bles. Another form must, then, be given to the verb : as, 



Est-ce que je vends ? 



Is it that I sell ? &c. 



The interrogation being made in the verb to be, est-ce y the 
verb following is used in the affirmative form. 



48' 



570 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



1872. Conjugation of the PASSIVE VERBS. 

We will only give a single model for the conjugation of the 
passive verbs, because the form is the same in the four conju- 
gations. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 



to be loved 
etre aime. 



being loved 
etant aime. 



PRESENT. 

not to be loved 
n'etre pas aime. 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 

not being loved 
n'etant pas aime. 



COMPOUND OF THE INFINITIVE AND PAST PARTICIPLE., 

to have been loved not to have been loved, 

avoir ete aime. n'avoir pas e"te aime. 



COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT AND PAST PARTICIPLES. 



having been loved 
ay ant ete aime. 



not having been loved 
n'ayant pas ete aime. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Affirmative. 
I am loved, &c. 

je suis aime, ee 

tu es aime, ee 

il est aime 
elle est aimee 

nous sommes 

aimes, ees 
vous etes aimes, 

ees 
ils sont aimes 

elles sont aimees. 



Negative. 

I am not loved, 
&c. 

je ne suis pas 

aime, ee 
tu n'es pas aime, 

ee 
il n'est pas aime 
elle n'est pas 

aimee 
nous ne sommes 

pas aimes, ees 
vous n'etes pas 

aimes, ees 
ils ne sont pas 

aimes 
elles ne sont pas 

aimees. 



Interrogative. 
am I loved ? &c. 

suis-je aime, ee 

es-tu aime, ee 

est-il aime 
est-elle aimee 

sommes-nous 
aimes, ees 

6tes-vous aimes 
ees 

sont-ils aimes 

sont-elles ai- 
mees ? 



Negative and 
Interrogative. 
am I not loved ? 
&c. 

ne suis-je pas 

aime, ee 
n'es-tu pas aime, 

ee 
n'est-il pas aime 
n'est-elle pas 

aimee 
ne sommes-nous 

pas aimes, ees 
n'etes-vous pas 

aimes, ees 
ne sont-ils pas 

aimes 
ne sont-elles pas 

aimees ? 



PASSIVE VERBS. 



571 



IMPERFECT. 



I was loved, &c. 

j'etais aime,ee 
tu etais aime, ee 
il etait aime 
elle etait aimee 

nous etions ai- 
mes, ees 

vous etiez aimes, 
ees 

ils etaient aimes 

elles etaient ai- 
mees. 



was I loved ? &c. 



I was not loved, 
&c. 



je n'etais pas etais-je aime, ee 

aime, ee 

tu n'etais pas etais-tu aime, ee 

aime, ee 

il n 'etait pas etait-il aime 

aime 

elle n'etait pas etait-elle aimee 

aimee 

nous n'etions pas etions-nous ai- 

aimes, ees mes, ees 

vous n'etiez pas etiez-vous ai- 

aimes, ees mes, ees 

ils n'etaient pas etaient-ils aimes 

aimes 

elles n'etaient etaient-elles ai- 

pas aimees. mees ? 



was I not loved ? 
&c. 

n'etais-je pas ai- 
me, ee 

n'etais-tu pas 
aime, ee 

n'etait-il pas aime 

n'etait-elle pas 

aimee 
n'etions -nous pas 

aimes, ees 
n'etiez-vous pas 

aimes, ees 
n'etaient-ils pas 

aimes 
n'etaient-elles aps 

aimees ? 



I was loved, &c. 

je fus aime, ee 
tu fus aime, 6e 
il fut aime" 
elle fut aimee 

nous fumes ai- 
mes, ees 

vous futes aimes, 
6es 

ils furent aimes 

elles furent ai- 
mees. 



PRETERITE DEFINITE. 

I was not loved, was I loved ? 
&c. 



&c. 
fus-je aime, ee 

fus-tu aime, ee 

fut-il aime 

fut-elle aimee 



je ne fus pas ai- 

m^, ee 
tu ne fus pas 

aime, ee 
il ne fut pas 

aime 
elle ne fut pas 

aimee 
nous ne fumes fumes-nous ai- 

pas aimes, ees mes, ees 
vous ne futes pas futes-vous ai- 

aimes, ees mes, ees 

ils ne furent pas furent-ils aimes 

aimes 
elles ne furent pas furent-elles ai- 

aimees. mees ? 



was I not loved ? 

&e. 

ne fus-je pas aime, 

ee 
ne fus-tu pas aime, 

ee 
ne fut-il pas aime 

ne fut-elle pas 

aimee 
ne fumes-nous pas 

aimes, ees 
ne futes vous pas 

aimes, ees 
ne furent-ils pas 

aimes 
ne furent-elles pas 

aimees ? 



PRETERITE INDEFINITE. 



I have been 
loved, &c. 



I have not been 
loved, &c. 



j'ai ete aime, ee je n'ai pas ete 
aime, ee 

tu as ete aime, tu n'as pas ete 
ee aime, ee 

il a ete aime il n'a pas ete 

aime 

elle a ete aimee elle n'a pas ete 
aimee 



have I been have I not been 

loved ? &e. loved ? &c. 

ai-je ete aime, ee n'ai-je pas ete 

aime, ee 
as-tu ete aime, n'as-tu pas ete 

ee aime, ee 

a-t-il ete aime n'a-t-il pas ete 

aime 
a-t-elle ete ai- n'a-t-elle pas ete 
mee aimee 



572 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



nous avons ete nous n'avons pas 

aimes, ees ete aimes, ees 

vous avez ete vous n'avez pas 

aimes, ees ete aimes, ees 

ils out ete aimes ils n'ont pas ete 
aimes 

elles ont ete ai- elles n'ont pas 

mees. ete aimees. 



avons-nous ete 
aimes, ees 

avez-vous ete 
aimes, ees 

ont-ils ete aimes 

ont-elles ete 
aimees ? 



n avons-nous pas 

ete aimes, ees 
n'avez-vous pas 

ete aimes, ees 
n'ont-ils pas ete 

aimes 
n'ont-elles pas ete 

aimees ? 



PLUPERFECT. 



I had been 
loved, &c. 

j'avais ete aime, 

ee 
tu avais ete 

aime, ee 
il avait ete aime 

elle avait ete 

aimee 
nous avions ete 

aimes, ees 
vous aviez ete 

aimes, ees 
ils avaient ete 

aimes 
elles avaient ete 

aimees. 



I had not been 
loved, &c. 

je n 'avais pas 

ete aime, ee 
tu n'avais pas 

ete aime, ee 
il n'avait pas ete 

aime 
elle n'avait pas 

ete aimee 
nous n'avionspas 

ete aimes, ees 
vous n'aviez pas 

ete aimes, ees 
ils n'avaient pas 

ete aimes 
elles n'avaient 

pas ete aimees 



had I been 
loved ? &c. 

avais-je ete 

aime, ee 
avais-tu ete 

aimee, ee 
avait-il ete aime 

avait-elle ete 

aimee 
avions-nous ete 

aimes, ees 
aviez-vous ete 

aimes, ees 
avaient-ils ete 

aimes 
avaient-elles ete 

aimees ? 



had I not been 
loved ? &c. 

n'avaisje pas ete 

aime, ee 
n'avais-tu pas ete 

aime, ee 
n'avait-il pas ete 

aimee 
n'avait-elle pas 

ete aimee 
n'avions-nous pas 

ete aimes, ees 
n'aviez-vous pas 

ete aimes, ees 
n'avaient-ils pas 

ete aimes 
n'avaient-elles pas 

ete aimees ? 



PRETERITE ANTERIOR. 



I had been 
loved, &c. 

j'eus ete aime, 

ee 
tu eus ete aime, 

ee 
il eut ete aime 

elle eut ete ai- 
mee 

nous eumes ete 
aimes, ees 

vous eutes ete 
aimes, ees 

ils eurent ete 

aimes 
elles eurent ete 

aimees 



I had not been 
loved, &c. 

je n'eus pas ete 

aime, ee 
tu n'eus pas ete 

aime, ee 
il n'eut pas ete 

aime 
elle n'eut pas 

ete aimee 
nous n'eumes 

pas ete aimes, 

ees 
vous n'eutes 

pas ete aimes, 

ees 
ils n'eurent pas 

ete aimes 
elles n'eurent 

pas ete aimees. 



had I been 
loved ? &c. 

eus-je ete aime, 

ee 
eus-tu ete aime, 

ee 
eut-il ete aime 

eut-elle ete ai- 
mee 

eumes-nous ete 
aimes, ees 

eutes-vous ete 
aimes, ees 

eurent-ils ete 

aimes 
eurent-elles ete 

aimees ? 



had I not been 
loved ? &c. 

n'eus-je pas ete 

aime, ee 
n'eus-tu pas ete 

aime, ee 
n'eut-il pas ete 

aime 
n'eut-elle pas ete 

aimee 
n'eumes-nous pas 

ete aimes, ees 

n'eutes-vous pas 
ete aimes, ees 

n'eurent-ils pas 

ete aimes 
n'eurent-elles pas 

ete aimees ? 



PASSIVE VERBS. 



573 



FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 



I shall or will be 

loved, &c. 
je serai aime, ee 

tu seras aime, ee 

il sera aime 

elle sera aimee 

nous serons ai- 
mes, ees 

vous serez ai- 
mes, ees 

ils seront aimes 

elles seront ai- 
mees. 



I shall or will not 
be loved, &c. 

je ne serai pas 

aime, ee 
tu ne seras pas 

aime, ee 
il ne sera pas 

aime 
elle ne sera pas 

aimee 
nous ne serons 

pas aimes, ees 
vous ne serez 

pas aimes, ees 
ils ne seront pas 

aimes 
elles ne seront 

pas aime es. 



shall or will I 
be loved ? &c. 

serai-je aime, ee 
seras-tu aime, ee 
sera-t-il aime 
sera-t-elle aimee 

serons-nous ai- 
mes, ees 

serez-vous ai- 
mes, ees 

seront-ils aimes 

seront-elles ai- 



shall or will I not 
be loved ? &c. 

ne serai-je pas ai- 
me, ee 

ne seras-tu pas ai- 
me, ee 

ne sera-t-il pas ai- 
me 

ne sera-t-elle pas 
aimee 

ne serons-nous pas 
aimes, ees 

ne serez-vous pas 
aimes, ees 

ne seront-ils pas 
aimes 

ne seront-elles pas 
aimees ? 



FUTURE ANTERIOR. 



I shall or will 


I shall or will not 


shall or will I 


shall or will I not 


have been lov- 


have been lov- 


have been lov- 


have been lov- 


ed, &c. 


ed, &c. 


ed ? &c. 


ed ? &c. 


j'aurai ete aime 


je n'aurai pas ete 


aurai-je ete ai- 


n'aurai-je pas ete 


ee 


aime, ee 


me, ee 


aime, ee 


tu auras ete ai- 


tu n'auras pas 


auras-tu ete ai- 


n'auras-tu pas ete 


me ee 


ete aime, ee 


me, ee 


aime, ee 


il aura ete aime 


il n'aura pas ete 


aura-t-il ete ai- 


n'aura-t-il pas ete 




aime 


me 


aime 


elle aura ete ai- 


elle n'aura pas 


aura-t-elle ete 


n'aura-t-elle pas 


mee 


ete aimee 


aimee 


ete aimee 


nous aurons ete 


nous n'auronspas 


aurons-nous ete 


n'aurons-nous pas 


aimes, ees 


ete aimes, ees 


aimes, ees 


ete aimes, ees 


vous aurez e*te 


vous n'aurezpas 


aurez-vous ete 


n'aurez-vous pas 


aim^s, ees 


ete aimes, ees 


aimes, ees 


ete aimes, ees 


ils auront ete 


ils n'auront pas 


auront-ils ete ai- 


n'auront-ilspasete 


aimes 


ete aimes 


mes 


aimes 


elles auront ete 


elles n'auront pas 


auront-elles ete 


n'auront-elles pas 


aimees. 


ete aimees. 


aimees ? 


ete aimees ? 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 



I should, would, I should, would, should, would, should, would, 

could, or might could, or might could, or might could, or might 

be loved, &c. not bo loved, &c. I be loved ? Elc. I not be loved ? 

&c. 

je serais aime, je ne serais pas serais-je aime, ne serais-je pas 

ee aime, ee ee aime, ee 

tu serais aime, tu ne serais pas serais-tu aime, ne serais-tu pas 

ee aime, ee ee aime", ee 



574 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



il serait aime 
elle serait aimee 

nous serions ai- 
mes, ees 

vous seriez ai- 
mes, ees 

ils seraient ai- 
mes 

elles seraient 
aimees. 



il ne serait pas 

aime 
elle ne serait 

pas aimee 

nous ne serions 

pas aimes, ees 

vous ne seriez 

pas aimes, ees 

ils ne seraient 

pas aimes 
elles ne seraient 

pas aimees. 



serait-il aime 
serait-elle aimee 

serions-nous ai- 
mes, ees 

seriez-vous ai- 
mes, ees 

seraient-ils ai- 
mes 

seraient-elles ai- 
mees ? 



ne serait-il pas 

aime 
ne serait elle pas 

aimee 
ne serions-nous 

pas aimes, ees 
ne soriez-vous pas 

aimes, ees 
ne seraient-ils pas 

aimes 
ne seraient-elles 

pas aimees ? 



could, or might 
have been lov- 
ed, &c. 

j'aurais ete ai- 
me, ee 

tu aurais ete ai- 
me, ee 

il aurait ete ai- 
me 

elle aurait ete 
aimee 

nous aurions ete 
aimes, ees 

vous auriez ete 
aimes, ees 

ils auraient ete 

aimes 
elles auraient 

ete aimees 



I should, would, 
could, or might 
not have been 
loved, &c. 

je n'aurais pas 

ete aime, ee 
tu n'aurais pas 

ete aime, ee 
il n'aurait pas 

ete aime 
elle n'aurait pas 

ete aimee 
nous n'aurions 
pas ete aimes, 

ees 
vous n'auriez pas 

ete aimes, ees 
ils n'auraient pas 

ete aimes 
elles n'auraient 

pas ete aimees. 



should, would, 
could, or might 
I have been 
loved? &c. 

aurais-je ete ai- 
me, ee 

aurais-tu ete ai- 
me, ee 

aurait-ils ete ai- 
me 

aurait-elle ete 
aimee 

aurions-nous ete 
aimes, ees 



should, would, 
could, or might 
I not have been 
loved ? &c. 

n'aurais-je pas ete 

aime, ee 
n'aurais-tu pas ete 

aime, ee 
n'aurait-il pas ete 

aime 
n'aurait-elle pas 

ete aimee 
n'aurions-nous pas 



auriez-vous ete n'auriez-vous pas 
pas aimes, ees ete aimes, ees 

auraient-ils ete n'auraient-ils pas 
aimes ete aimes 

auraient-elles ete n'auraient-elles 



aimees r 



pas ete aimees, 



be loved 

sois aime, ee 
qu'il soit aime 
qu'elle soit aimee 
soyons aimes, ees 
soyez aimes, ees 
qu'ils soient aimes 
qu'elles soient aimees. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

be not loved 



ne sois pas aime, ee 
qu'il ne soit pas aime 
qu'elle ne soit pas aimee 
ne soyons pas aimes, ees 
ne soyez pas aimes, ees 
qu'ils ne soient pas aimes 
qu'elles ne soient pas aimees. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



that I may be loved, &c. 

que je sois aime, ee 
que tu sois aime, ee 
qu'il soit aime 
qu'elle soit aimee 



PRFSENT. 

that I may not be loved, &c. 

que je ne sois pas aime, ee 
que tu ne sois pas aime, ee 
qu'il ne soit pas aime 
qu'elle ne soit pas aimee 



PRONOMINAL VERBS. 



575 



que nous soyons aimes, ees 
que vous soyez aimes, ees 
qu'ils soient aimes 
qu'elles soient aimees. 



que nous ne soyons pas aimes, ees 
que vous ne soyez pas aimes, ees 
qu'ils ne soient pas aimes 
qu'elles ne soient pas aimees. 



IMPERFECT. 



that I might be loved, &c. 

que je fusse aime, ee 
que tu fusses aime, ee 
qu'il fut aime 
qu'elle fut aimee 
que nous fussions aimes, ees 
que vous fussiez aimes, ees 
qu'ils fussent aimes 
qu'elles fussent aimees. 



that I might not be loved, &c. 

que je ne fusse pas aime, ee 
que tu ne fusses pas aime, ee 
qu'il ne fut pas aime 
qu'elle ne fut pas aimee 
que nous ne fussions pas aimes, ees 
que vous ne fussiez pas aimes, ees 
qu'ils ne fussent pas aimes 
qu'elles ne fussent pas aimees. 



PRETERITE. 



that I may have been loved, &c. 

que j'aie ete aime, ee 
que tu aies ete aime, ee 
qu'il ait ete aime 
qu'elle ait ete aimee 
que nous ayons ete aimes, ees 
que vous ayez ete aimes, ees 
qu'ils aient ete aimes 
qu'elles aient ete aimees. 



that I may not have been loved, &c. 

que je n'aie pas ete aime, ee 
que tu n'aies pas ete aime, ee 
qu'il n'ait pas ete aime 
qu'elle n'ait pas ete aimee 
que nous n'ayons pas ete aimes, ees 
que vous n'ayez pas ete aimes, ees 
qu'ils n'aient pas ete aimes 
qu'elles n'aient pas ete aimees. 



PLUPERFECT. 



that I might have been loved, &c. 

que j'eusse ete aime, ee 

que tu eusses ete aime, ee 

qu'il eut ete aime 

qu'elle eut ete aimee 

que nous eussions ete aimes, ees 

que vous eussiez ete aimes, ees 

qu'ils eussent ete aimes 
qu'elles eussent ete aimees. 



that I 'might not have been loved, 
&c. 

que je n'eusse pas ete aime, ee 

que tu n'eusses pas ete aime, ee 

qu'il n'eut pas ete aime 

qu'elle n'eut pas ete aimee 

que nous n'eussions pas ete aimes, 

ees 
que vous n'eussiez pas ete aimes, 

ees 
qu'ils n'eussent pas ete aimes 
qu'elles n'eussent pas ete aimees. 



1873. Of Pronominal Verbs. 

Pronominal verbs are those in which each person is conju- 
gated, through all the tenses, with two pronouns of the same 
person, one being nominative, the other objective. 

If the nominative of the verb, instead of being a pronoun, 



576 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

is a noun, then the nominative pronoun is not used, and the 
objective must be of the same number and person as the nom- 
inative, that is to say, of the third person singular or plural, ac- 
cording to the number of this nominative. (For the reflective 
pronouns see the Grammar.) 

The pronominal verbs are either reflective or reciprocal. 



1874. Of Reflective Verbs. 

Reflective verbs are either active or neuter. (See the Gram- 
mar.) Some active verbs are used impersonally with the re- 
flective form ; but then they admit only of the third person sin- 
gular. They assume this form, in a passive sense, for the sake 
of brevity and energy ; as, 

There are a great many houses II se batit beaucoup de maisons 
building this year, cette annee, 

instead of 

Beaucoup de maisons sont baties cette annee. 

A great battle will be fought to- II se donnera une grande bataille 
morrow, demain, 

instead of 

Une grande bataille sera donnee demain. 

Reflective verbs have their simple tenses conjugated like 
those of the verbs from which they are derived, whether ac- 
tive or neuter, regular or irregular ; but their compound tenses 
are conjugated with the auxiliary verb etre, to be, without ex- 
ception, and the past participle agrees in number and gender 
with its nominative. 

1875. When a reflective verb is used in the infinitive mood, 

preceded by another verb, the reflective pronoun placed before 

the infinitive must be of the same number and person as the 

nominative of the first verb ; as, 

I wish to take a walk. Je veux me promener. 

Thou wishest to take a walk. Tu veux te promener. 

He or she wishes to take a walk. II or elle veut se promener, &c. 

My brother wishes to take a walk. Mon frere veut se premener. 

My brothers wish to take a walk. Mes freres veulent se promener. 

Foreigners must pay attention to this rule, in order to avoid 



RECIPROCAL VERBS. 577 

a fault very common among them, which consists in using the 
reflective pronouns of the third person singular or plural before 
the infinitive, whatever may be the person and number of the 
nominative of the first verb ; a fault into which they are led by 
observing the pronoun sc so commonly prefixed to the infini- 
tive of the reflective verbs. The application of this rule 
may present some difficulties in the case of impersonal verbs, 
which are used elliptically ; but by the analysis of the sentence, 
they are easily removed ; as. 
You must go and take a walk, 11 faut aller vous promener. 

This phrase stands for : 

II faut que vous alliez vous promener, 
in which the preceding rule finds its application without diffi- 
culty. 



1876. Of Reciprocal Verbs. 

A verb is reciprocal when it expresses the reciprocal ac- 
tion of two or more nominatives upon each other. These 
verbs are conjugated, in all their tenses and persons, like the 
reflective verbs, with the exception, that they have no singular 
number, as they indicate the reciprocal action of several per- 
sons or things upon each other. 

When the reciprocity expressed by the verb is exercised 
upon two persons only, the reciprocal pronoun, Pun, Pautre, is 
used in the singular. When, on the contrary, the reciprocity 
relates to more than two persons, the pronoun is used in the 
plural, les uns, les autres. 

In either of the two preceding cases, if the persons used 
as nominatives are of the masculine gender, the pronoun is 
of the same gender, Pun, Pautre, les uns, les autres ; if 
one of the nominatives is masculine and the other or others 
are feminine, the pronoun is still used in the masculine ; but if 
the nominatives are all feminine, then the pronoun is used in 
the same gender ; as, Pune, V autre, les unes, les autres. 

There are in French a great number of verbs which are used 
in the reflective form, although in English they do not admit of 
49 



578 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



the reflective pronouns, one's self, myself, thyself , himself or 
herself, &c. They will be found in the following list. 



1877. A LIST OF VERBS WHICH ARE REFLECTIVE IN 
FRENCH, ALTHOUGH THEY DO NOT TAKE THIS FORM IN 
ENGLISH. 



S'abstenir, 
S'accorder, 
S'adresser, 
Se baigner, 
Se raidir, 
Se facher, 

Se liquefier, 
Se mourir, 
S'empresser, 
S'eclipser, 
Se remplumer, 
S'attendrir, 
S'opiniatrer, 
Se degouter, 

Se renouveler, 
Se resoudre, 
Se faire, 
Se garder, 
S'epanouir, 
Se vanter, 
Se dechainer, 
S'enrhumer, 
Se soucier, 
Se plaindre, 
S'avancer, 
S'aboucher, 
Se figer, 
Se glisser, 
Se plaire, 
Se complaire, 
S'appetisser, 
Se desister, 
S'acquitter, 
S'entretenir, 
Se defter, 
Se determiner, 
S'ecouler, 
S'efforcer, 
Se recrier, 
s'attendre, 
S'evaporer, 
Se fletrir, 
S'evanouir, 
S'endormir, 



to abstain. 

to agree. 

to apply. 

to bathe. 

to bear up against 

to be angry, to 

be offended, 
to become liquid. 
to be dying. 

'• eager. 

" eclipsed, 
to begin to thrive, 
to be moved. 

• ' obstinate. 

" out of conceit 
with, 
to be renewed. 

" resolved. 

" silent, 
to beware, 
to blow, 
to boast, 
to break loose, 
to catch cold, 
to care for. 
to complain, 
to come forward. 
to confer, 
to congeal, 
to creep into, 
to delight in. 

(C 

to diminish, 
to desist. 
to discharge. 
to discourse with, 
to distrust, 
to determine. 
to elapse, 
to endeavour. 
to exclaim, 
to expect, 
to evaporate. 
to fade away, 
to faint away, 
to fall asleep. 



Se rendormir, 
S'acharner, 

Se figurer, 

S'imaginer, 

Se remplumer. 

S'attrouper, 

S'ecouler, 

S'envoler, 

S'emporter, 

Se gangrener, 
S'enivrer, 
Se paraliser, 
Se lever, 
S'ennuyer, 
Se desister, 
Se demettre, 
S'en aller, 
Se coucher, 
S'attrister, 
S'amender, 
S'enhardir, 
S'assoupir, 
Se familiariser, 
S'impatienter, 
Se radoucir, 
S'appauvrir, 
S'enorgueillir, 
S'enrichir, 
Se lasser, 
Se guerir, 
S'enquerir, 
S*entremettre, 
S'ingerer, 
S'agenouiller, 
Se moquer, 
Se saisir, 
Se liguer, 
S'accouder, 

S'appuyer, 
Se depecher, 
Se hater, 
S'evader, 



to fall asleep again 
to fall furiously 

upon, 
to fancy. 

to new feather, 
to flock in crowds. 
to flow out. 
to fly away, 
to fly into a pas- 
sion, 
to gangrene, 
to get intoxicated. 

" palsied. 

" up. 

" weary, 
to give over. 

" up. 
to go away. 
" to bed. 
to grieve, 
to grow better, 
bold. 

" drowsy. 

" familiar. 

" impatient. 

" milder. 

" poor. 

" proud. 

" rich. 

" tired. 

to heal. 

to inquire. 

to intermeddle. 
it 

to kneel down, 
to laugh at. 
to lay hold of. 
to league. 
to lean on one's 

elbow, 
to lean upon, 
to make haste. 

to make one's es- 
cape. 



REFLECTIVE VERBS. 



579 



S'echapper, 

S'allier, 

Se marier, 
Se meler, 
Se fondre, 
Se meprendre, 
Se mefier, 
Se mutiner, 
S'opposer, 
Se deborder, 
Se farder, 
S'apercevoir, 
S'obstiner, 
Se putreiier, 
S'expatrier, 

Se revolter, 
Se dedire, 
Se rejouir, 
Se souvenir, 
Se ressouvenir, 
Se repentir, 
Se demettre, 
Se retracter, 
S'endetter, 
S'enfuir, 
Se vendre, 



to make one's es- 
cape. 

to make an alli- 
ance. 

to marry. 

to meddle with. 

to melt. 

to mistake. 

to mistrust. 

to mutiny. 

to oppose. 

to overflow. 

to paint. 

to perceive. 

to persist. 

to putrefy. 

to quit one's 
country. 

to rebel. 

to recant. 

to rejoice. 

to remember. 
it 

to repent 
to resign. 
to retract, 
to run in debt, 
to run away, 
to sell. 



S'acheminer, 
S'apetisser, 
S'asseoir, 
S'attabler, 

Se glisser, 
S'arreter, 
S'esquiver, 
S'attacher, 
Se raidir, 
Se baisser, 
S'efforcer, 
Se debattre, 
Se soumettre, 
S'abonner, 
Se rendre, 
S'enteter, 

Se formaliser, 
Se piquer, 
Se refugier, 
Se reposer, 
S'enraciner, 
Se fier, 
Se promener, 
Se retirer, 
S'etonner, 
S'emerveiller, 



to set off. 
to shrink, 
to sit down. 

" " at the 

table, 
to slip, 
to stay, 
to steal away, 
to stick to. 
to stiffen, 
to stoop. 
to strive, 
to struggle, 
to submit, 
to subscribe, 
to surrender, 
to take a strong 

fancy, 
to take offence. 

" pet. 

" refuge. 

" rest. 

H root, 
to trust, 
to walk, 
to withdraw, 
to wonder. 






CONJUGATION OF REFLECTIVE VEPcBS 

1878. S'aimer, to love one's self. 



to love one's self 
s'aimer. 



loving one's self 
s'aimant. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT. 

not to love one's self 
ne pas s'aimer. 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 

not loving one's self 
ne s'aimant pas. 



COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT OF THE INFINITIVE AND PAST 
PARTICIPLE. 

to have loved one's self not to have loved one's self 

s'etre aime. ne pas s'etre aime. 



580 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT AND PAST PARTICIPLES. 

having loved one's self not having loved one's self 

s'etant aime. ne s'etant pas aime. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 



PRESENT. 



Affirmative. 

I love myself, 
&c. 

je m'aime 
tu t'airaes 
il or elle s'aime 

nous nous aimons 

vous vous aimez 

ils or elles s'ai- 
ment. 



Negative. 



I love not love 
myself, &c. 

je ne m'aime pas 
tu ne t'aimes pas 
il or elle ne 

s'aime pas 
nous ne nous ai- 
mons pas 
vous ne vous ai- 
mez pas 
Ils or elles ne 
s'aiment pas. 



Interrogative. 

do I love myself? 
&c. 

m'aime-je 
t'aimes-tu 
s'aime-t-il or elle 

nous aimons-nous 

vous aimez-vous 

s'aiment-ils or 
elles ? 



Negative and In- 
terrogative. 

do I not love my- 
self ? &c. 

ne m'aime-je pas 
ne t'aimes-tu pas 
ne s'aime-t-il or 

elle pas 
ne nous aimons- 
nous pas 
ne vous aimez-vous 

pas 
ne s'aiment-ils or 
elles pas ? 



IMPERFECT. 



I loved myself, 
&c. 

je m'aimais 

tu t'aimais 

il or elle s'aimait 

nous nous amni- 
ons 
vous vous aimiez 

ils or elles s'ai- 
maient. 



I did not love 
myself, &c. 

je ne m'aimais 
pas 

tu ne t'aimais 
pas 

il or elle ne s'ai- 
mait pas 

nous ne nous ai- 
mions pas 

vous ne vous ai- 
miez pas 

ils or elles ne s'ai- 
maient pas. 



did I love my- 
self? &c. 

m'aimais-je 

t'aimais-tu 

s'aimait-il or elle 

nous aimions- 

nous 
vous aimiez-vous 

s'aimaient-ils or 
elles ? 



did I not love my- 
self? &c. 

ne m'aimais-je pas 
ne t'aimais-tu pas 

ne s'aimait-il or 
elle pas 

ne nous aimions- 
nous pas 

ne vous aimiez- 
vous pas 

ne s'aimaient-ils or 
elles pas? 



PRETERITE DEFINITE. 



I did love my- 
self, &c. 

je m'aimai 
tu t'aimas 
il or elle s'aima 

nous nous ai- 

mames 
vous vous ai- 

mates 
ils or elles s'ai- 

merent. 



I did not love 
myself, &c. 

je ne m'aimai pas 
tu ne t'aimas pas 
il or elle ne s'ai- 
ma pas 
nous ne nous ai- 

mames pas 
vous ne vous ai- 

mates pas 
ils or elles ne s'ai- 
merent pas. 



did I love my- 
self? &c. 

m'aimai-je 
t'aimas-tu 
s'aima-t-il or elle 

nous aimames- 

nous 
vous aimates- 

vous 
s'aimerent-ils or 

elles ? 



did I not love my- 
self? &c. 

ne m'aimai-je pas 
ne t'aimas-tu pas 
ne s'aima-t-il or 

elle pas 
ne nous aimames- 

nous pas 
ne vous aimateV 

vouspas 
ne s'aimerent-ils or 

elles pas ? 



S'AIMER, TO LOVE ONE'S SELF. 



581 



PRETERITE INDEFINITE. 



I have loved my- 
self, &c. 

je me suis aime, 
ee 

tu t'es aime, ee 

il or elle s'est ai- 
me, ee 
nous noussommes 
aimes, ees 

vous vous etes 

aimes, ees 
ils or elles se 

sont aimes, ees. 



I have not loved 
myself, &c. 

je ne me suis pas 

aime, ee 
tu ne t'es pas ai- 
me, ee 
il or elle ne s'est 

pas aime, ee 
nous nous ne 

sommes pas 

aimes, ees 
vous ne vous etes 

pas aimes, ees 
ils or elles ne se 

sont pas aimes, 

ees. 



have I loved 
myself? &c. 

me suis-je aime, 

ee 
t'es-tu aime, ee 

s'est-t-il or elle 

aime, ee 
nous sommes- 

nous aimes, 

ees, 
vous etes-vous 

aimes, ees 
se sont-ilsor elles 

aimes, ees ? 



have I not loved 
myself ? &c. 

ne me suis-je pas 

aime, ee 
ne t'es-tu pas aime, 

ee 
ne s'est-il or elle 

pas aime, ee 
ne nous sommes- 

nous pas aimes, 

ees 
ne vous etes-vous 

pas aimes, ees 
nese sont-ilsor elles 

pas aimes, ees ? 



PLUPERFECT. 



I had loved my- 
self, &c. 

je m'etais aime, 

ee 
tu t'etais aime, 

ee 
il or elle s'etait 

aime, ee 
nous nous etions 
aimes, ees 

vous vous etiez 
aimes, ees 

ils or elles s'e- 
taient aimes, 



I had not loved 
myself, &c. 

je ne m'etais pas 
aime, ee 

tu ne t'etais pas 
aime, ee 

il or elle ne s'etait 
pas aime, ee 

nous ne nous eti- 
ons pas aimes, 
ees 

vous ne vous e- 
tiez pas aimes, 
ees 

ils or elles ne s'e- 
taient pas ai- 
mes, ees. 



had I loved my- 
self? &c. 

m'etais-je aime, 

ee 
t'etais-tu aime, 

ee 
s'etait-il or elle 

aime, ee 
nous etions-nous 

aimes, ees 

vous etiez-vous 
aimes, ees 

s'etaient-ils or 
elles aimes, 



had I not loved my- 
myself? &c. 

ne m'etais-je pas 
aime, ee 

ne t'etais-tu pas ai- 
me, ee 

ne s'etait-il or elle 
pas aime, ee 

ne nous etions-nous 
pas aimes, ees 

ne vous etiez-vous 
pas aimes, ees 

ne s'etaient-ils or 
elles pas aimes, 
ees ? 



PRETERITE ANTERIOR. 



I had loved my- 
self, &c. . 

je me fus aime, 

ee, 
tu te fus aime, 

ee 
il or elle se fut 

aime, ee 

nous nous fumes 
aimes, ees 

vous vous futes 
aimes, ees, 

ils or elles se fu- 
rent aimes, ees, 



I had not loved 
myself, &c. 

je ne me fus pas 
aime, ee 

tu ne te fus pas 
aime, ee 

il or elle ne se 
fut pas aime, 
ee 

nous ne nous 
fumes pas ai- 
mes, ees 

vous ne vous 
futes pas ai- 
mes, ees 

ils or elles ne se 
furent pas ai- 
mes, ees. 

49* 



had I loved my- 
self? &c. 

me fus-je aime, 

ee 
te fus-tu aime, 

ee 
se fut-il or elle 

aime, ee 

nous ftlmes-nous 
aimes, ees 

vous futes-vous 
aimes, ees 

se furent-ils or 
elles aimes, 

ees ? 



had I not loved 
myself ? &c. 

ne me fus-je pas ai- 
me, ee 

ne te fus-tu pas ai- 
me, ee 

ne se fut-il or elle 
pas aime, ee 

ne nous fumes- 
nous pas aimes, 
ees 

ne vous futes-vous 
pas aimes, ees 

ne se furent-ils or 
elles pas aimes, 



582 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 

I shall or will I shall or will shall or will I shall or will I not 

love myself, not love my- love myself? love myself ? &c. 

&c. &c. &c. 

je m'aimerai je ne m'aimerai m'aimerai-je ne m'aimerai-je 

pas pas 

tu t'aimeras tu ne t'aimeras t'aimeras-tu ne t'aimeras-tu pas 

pas 

il or elle s'aimera il or elle ne s'ai- s'aimera-t-il or ne s'aimera-t-il or 

mera pas elle elle pas 

nous nous aime- nous ne nous ai- nous aimerons- ne nous aimerons- 

rons merons pas nous nous pas 

vous vous aime- vous ne vous ai- vous aimerez- ne vous aimerez- 

rez merez pas vous vous pas 

ils or elles s'aime- ils or elles ne s'aimeront-ils or ne s'aimeront-ils or 

ront. s'aimeront pas. elles? elles pas ? 

FUTURE ANTERIOR. 

I shall or will I shall or will shall or will I shall or will I not 
have loved my- not have loved have loved my- have loved my- 
self, &c. myself, &c. self ? &c. self ? &c. 

je me serai aime, je ne me serai me serai-je aime, ne me serai-je pas 

ee pas aime, ee ee aime, ee 

tu te seras aime, tu ne te seras te seras-tu aime, ne te seras-tu pas 

ee pas aime, ee ee aime, ee 

il or elle se sera il or elle ne se se sera-t-il or elle ne se sera-t-il or 

aime, ee sera pas aime, aime, ee elle pas aime, ee 
ee 

nous nous serons nous ne nous se- nous serons-nous ne nous serons- 

aimes, ees rons pas aimes, aimes, ees nous pas aimes, 

ees ees 

vous vous serez vous ne vous se- vous serez-vous ne vous serez-vous 

aimes, ees rez pas aimes, aimes, ees pas aimes, ees 
ees 

ils or elles se se- ils or elles ne se se seront-ils or ne se seront-ils or 

ront aimes, ees. seront pas ai- elles aimes, elles pas aimes, 

mes, ees. ees ? ees ? 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 

PRESENT. 

I should, would, I should, would, should, would, should, would, 

could, or might could, or might could, or might could, or might 

love myself, &c. not love myself, I love myself ? I not love my- 

&c. &c. self? &c. 

je m'aimerais je ne m'aimerais m'aimerais-je ne m'aimerais-je 

pas pas 

tu t'aimerais tu ne t'aimerais t'aimerais-tu ne tu t'aimerais-tu 

pas pas 

il or elle s'aime- il or elle ne s'ai- s'aimerait-il or ne s'aimerait-il or 

rait merait pas elle elle pas 



s'aimer, to love one's self. 



583 



nous nous aime- 

rions 
vous vous aime- 

riez 
ils or elles s'ai- 

meraient. 



nous ne nous 

aimerions pas 
vous ne vous ai- 

meriez pas 
ils or elles ne 

s'aimeraient 

pas. 

PAST 



nous aimenons- 

nous 
vous aimeriez- 

vous 
s'aimeraient-ils 

or elles ? 



ne nous airnenons- 

nous pas 
ne vous aimeriez- 

vous pas 
ne s'aimeraient-ils 

or elles pas ? 



I should, would, I should, would, should, would, should, would, 

could, or might could, or might could, or might could, or might 

have loved my- not have loved I have loved I not have lov- 

&c. myself, &c. myself? &c. ed myself? &c. 



je me serais ai- 
me, ee 

tu te serais aime, 
ee 

il or elle se se- 
rait aime, ee 

nous nous seri- 
ons aimes, ees 

vous vous seriez 
aimes, ees 

ils or elles se se- 
raient aimes, 
ees. 



je ne me serais 
pas aime, ee 

tu ne te serais 
pas aime, ee 

il or elle ne se se- 
rait pas aime, 
ee 

nous ne nousse- 
rions pas ai- 
mes, ees, 

vous ne vous se- 
riez pas aimes, 
ees 

ils or elles ne se 
seraient pas ai- 
mes, ees. 



me serais-je ai- 
me, ee 

te serais-tuaime, 
ee 

se serait-il or 
elle aime, ee 



ne me serais-je pas 

aime, ee 
ne te serais-tu pas 

aime, ee 
ne se serait-il or 

elle pas aime, ee 



nous senons-nous ne nous senons- 
aimes, ees nous pas aimes, 

ees 

vous seriez-vous ne vous seriez-vous 
aimes, ees pas aimes, ees 



se seraient-ils or 
elles aimes, 



nese seraient-ils or 
elles pas aimes, 
ees ? 



love thyself, &c. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

do not love thyself, &c. 



aime-toi 

qu'il or qu'elle s'aime 

aimons-nous 

aimez-vous 

qu'ils or qu'elles s'aiment. 



ne t'aime pas 

qu'il or qu'elle ne s'aime pas 

ne nous aimons pas 

ne vous aimez pas 

qu'ils or qu'elles ne s'aiment pas. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



PRESENT. 



that I may love myself, &c, 

que je m'aime 

que tu t'aimes 

qu'il or qu'elle s'aime 

que nous nous aimions 

que vous vous aimiez 

qu'ils or qu'elles s'aiment. 



that I may not love myself, &c« 

que je ne m'aime pas 

que tu ne t'aimes pas 

qu'il or qu'elle ne s'aime pas 

que nous ne nous aimions pas 

que vous ne vous aimiez pas 

qu'ils or qu'elles ne s'aiment p£ 



IMPERFECT. 



that I might love, &c. 

que je m'aimasse 
que tu t'aimasses 
qu'il or qu'elle s'aimat 



that I might not love, &c. 

que je ne m'aimasse pas 
que tu ne t'aimasses pas 
qu'il or qu'elle ne s'aimat pas 



584 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



que nous nous aimassions 
que vous vous aimassiez 
qu'ils or qu'elles s'aimassent. 



que nous ne nous aimassions pas 
que vous ne vous aimassiez pas 
qu'ils or qu'elles ne s'aimassent pas. 



PRETERITE. 



that I may have loved myself, &c. that I mav not have loved myself, 

&c. 



queje me sois aime, ee 
que tu te sois aime, ee 
qu'il or qu'elle se soit aime, ee 

que nous nous soyons aimes, ees 

que vous vous soyez aimes, ees 



que je ne me sois pas aime, ee 

que tu ne te sois pas aime, ee 

qu'il or qu'elle ne se soit pas aime, 

ee 
que nous ne nous soyons pas aimes, 

ees 



que vous ne vous soyez pas aimes, 
ees 
qu'ils or qu'elles se soient aimees, qu'ils or qu'elles ne se soient pas 
ees. aimes, ees. 



PLUPERFECT. 



that I might have loved myself, &c. that I might not have loved myself, 

&c. 



que je ne me fusse pas aime, ee 
que tu ne te fusses pas aime, ee 
qu'il or qu'elle ne se fut pas aime, ee 
que nous ne nous fussions pas aimes, 

ees 
que vous ne vous fussiez pas aimes, 
ees 
qu'ils or qu'elles se fussent aimes, qu'ils or qu'elles ne se fussent pas 
ees. aimes, ees. 



que je me fusse aime, ee 
que tu te fusses aimee, ee 
qu'il or qu'elle se fut aime, ee 
que nous nous fussions aimes, ees 

que vous vous fussiez aimes, ees 



OF THE FORMATION OF THE TENSES. 



1879. We have stated already, that the tenses of the verbs 
are divided into two classes ; those of the first class are called 
primitive, those of the other derivative. 

Primitive tenses are those which serve to compose the 
others : they are five in number : 

1st. The Present of the Infinitive. 

2d. The Present Participle. 

3d. The Past Participle. 

4th. The Present of the Indicative. 

5th. The Preterite Definite. 



FORMATION OF THE TENSES. 



585 



Derivative tenses are those which are formed from the 
primitive. 

1880. 1st. From the present of the infinitive, are derived 
two tenses. 

The future absolute, by changing r, re, oir, into rai : as, 



Aimer, 
Finir, 
Recevoir, 
Rendre, 



Aimerai. 
Finirai. 
Recevrai. 
Rendrai. 



The conditional present, by changing r, re, oir, into rais 



as. 



Aimer, 
Finir, 
Recevoir, 
Rendre, 



Aimerais. 
Finirais. 
Recevrais. 
Rendrais. 



Exceptions. In the first conjugation, aller, to go, makes 
its future firai, and its conditional firais. 
In the second conjugation, 

To run, Courir, makes 

To die, Mourir, " 

To acquire, Acquerir, " 

To conquer, Conquerir, " 

To gather, Cueillir, " 

To project, Saillir, (mean- \ it 

ing, to hang out, to project) £ 
To assail, to thrill, Assaillir and Tre 

ditional regularly. 
To hold, Tenir, makes 

To come, Venir, " 



In the third conjugation, 

To have, Avoir, makes 

To become due, Echoir, " 

To be necessary, Falloir, " 

To be able, Pouvoir, " 

To know, Savoir, " 

To sit down, S'Asseoir, " 

To see, Voir, " 

All the compounds of voir make their future and conditional 
in the same manner, except pourvoir, to provide, and prevoir, 
to foresee, which make theirs regularly. 

makes 



je courrai, 


courrais. 


je mourrai, 


mourrais. 


je acquerrai, 
je conquerrai, 
je cueillerai, 


acquerrais. 

conquerrais. 

cueillerais. 


je saillerai, 


saillerais. 


Uir, make their future and con- 


je tiendrai, 
je viendrai, 


tiendrais. 
viendrais. 


j'aurai, 
j'echerrai, 
il faudra, 


aurais. 

echerrais. 

faudrait. 


je pourrai, 
je saurai, 


pourrais. 
saurais. 


je m'assierai, 


m'assierais, or 


je m'asseyerai 
je m'assoirai, 


, m'asseyerais, or 
m'assoirais. 


je verrai, 


verrais. 



To rain, Pleuvoir, 

To be worth, Valoir, 
To be willing, Vouloir, 



il pleuvra, 
je vaudrai, 
je voudrai, 



pleuvrait. 
vaudrais. 
voudrais. 



586 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



In the fourth conjugation, 

makes 



To make, 
To be, 



Faire, 
Etre, 



je ferai, 
je serai, 



ferais. 
serais. 



1881. 2d. From the present participle are derived three 
tenses, or parts of tenses. 

(1st.) The three persons plural of the present of the indica- 
tive, by changing ant into oris, ez, ent : as, 



Aimant, 
Finissant, 



aimons, 
finissons, 



aimez, 
finissez, 



aiment. 
finissent. 



In the third conjugation, only the first and second persons 
plural of the present of the indicative are derived from the 
present participle ; the third is irregular : 



Recevant, recevons, recevez. 
Rendant, rendons, rendez, 


rendent. 


1882. Exceptions. 


In the third 


conjugation, 


Ayant makes 
Sachant " 


avons, 
savons, 


avez, 
savez, 


ont. 

savent. 


In the fourth conjug 


ation, 






Faisant makes 
Disant " 
Etant 


faisons, 
sommes, 


faites, 
dites. 
etes. 


font, 
sont. 



All the compounds of faire and dire follow the same rule. 

The three persons plural of the imperative, being the same 
as the corresponding persons of the present of the indicative, 
are also derived from the present participle. 

1883. (2d.) The imperfect of the indicative, in all the per- 
sons, singular and plural, by changing ant into ais, ais, ait, ions, 
iez, aient. 

Aimant, aimais, aimais, aimait, 

Exceptions : 



aimions, aimiez, aimaient. 



Ayant 
Sachant 



makes 



avais, &c. 
savais, &c. 



1884. (3d.) The present of the subjunctive, by changing 
ant into c, es, e, ions, iez, ent : as, 

Aimant, aime, aimes, aime, aimions, aimiez, aiment. 

Finissant, rinisse, finisses, finisse, finissions, finissiez, finissent. 

Voyant, voie, voies, voie, voyions, voyiez, voient. 

Rendant, rende, rendes, rende, rendions, rendiez, rendent. 



FORMATION OF THE TENSES. 587 

1885. Exceptions. In the first conjugation, 

Allant makes aille, ailles, aille, allions, alliez, aillent. 

In the second conjugation. 

Tenant makes tienne, tiennes, tienne, tenions, teniez, tiennent. 
Venant " vienne, viennes, vienne, venions, veniez, viennent. 

In these two verbs, as well as in aller, the first and second 
persons plural are formed regularly. 

In the third conjugation, all the verbs in evoir : as, 

Recevant makes re^oive, regoives, regoive, recevions, receviez, 
regoivent. 

The first and second persons plural are regularly formed. 

Pouvant makes puisse, puisses, puisse, puissions, puissiez, puissent, 
Valant " vaille, vailles, vaille, valons, valez, vaillent. 

Voulant " veuille, veuilles, veuille, voulions, vouliez, veuillent. 

The first and second persons plural are regularly formed in 
vouloir. 
Mouvant makes meuve, meuves, meuve, mouvions, mouviez, meuvent. 

Same remark as above for the first and second persons 
plural. 

The verb falloir, having no present participle, makes its 
present of the subjunctive in an irregular manner, faille. 

In the fourth conjugation, 

Faisant makes fasse, fasses, fasse, fassions, fassiez, fassent. 
Bnvant " boive, boives, boive, buvions, buviez, boivent. 
Prenant " prenne, prennes, prenne, prenions, preniez, prennent. 

In the two latter of these verbs, the first and second persons 
plural are regularly formed. 

Etant makes sois, sois, soit, soyons, soyez, soient. 

The third persons of the imperative mood, being similar to 
those of the present of the subjunctive, are also derived from 
the present participle. 

1886. Remark. This derivation from the present participle, 
in the case of the verbs ending in yer, has no influence over 



588 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



the rules already given, in reference to changing ymto i, before 
mute syllables ; as, 

Voyant, que je voie, &c. 
Essayent, que j'essaie, &c. 

1887. 3d. With the past participle are formed all the com- 
pound tenses of all the verbs without exception, by employing 
this participle with the tenses of the auxiliary verbs, avoir, 
etre, as may be seen in the different forms of conjugation already 
given. 

1888. 4th. From the first person of the present of the in- 
dicative is formed the second person singular of the imperative 
mood, by suppressing only the personal pronounce \ as, 



J'aime, 




aime. 




Je finis, 




finis. 




Je recois, 




recois. 




Je rends, 




rends. 




Exception : 








1st Conjugation, 








Je vais 


makes 




va. 


3d Conjugation, 








J'ai 


makes 




aie. 


Je sais 


makes 




sache. 


4th Conjugation, 








Je suis 


makes 




sois. 



1889. 5th. From the preterite definite is formed the im- 
perfect of the subjunctive, by changing, in the first conjugation, 
ai, &c. into asse, asses, at, assions, assiez, assent, and in the 
three others, by adding se to the first person, 
u ses to the second person, 
" A over the third person ; 
and changing mes into ssions for the first person, 

u tes into ssiez for the second person, 

" rent into ssent for the third person ; as, 

1st. 

J'aimai, tu aimas, il aima, nous aimames, vous aimates, ils aimerent. 
Aimasse, aimasses, aimat, aimassions, aimassiez, aimassent. 



FORMATION OF THE TENSES. 



5S9 



2d. 

Je finis, tu finis, il finit, 
Finisse, finisses, finit, 

3d. 

Je recus, tu recus, il recut, 
Recusse, recusses, recut, 

4th. 

Je rendis, tu rendis, il rendit, nous rendimes, vous rendites, ils rendirent 
Rendisse, rendisses, rendit, rendissions, rendissiez, rendissent. 



nous finimes, 
finissions, 



nous resumes, 
recussions, 



vous finites, ils finirent. 
finissiez, finissent. 



vous recutes, recurent. 
recussiez, re^ussent. 



1890. A TABLE SHOWING THE TERMINATIONS OF ALL THE 
TENSES AND PERSONS IN THE VERBS OF THE FOUR CON- 
JUGATIONS. 



Singular. 



FIRST CONJUGATION. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT. 

Plural. 



e 


ons 


es 


ez 


e. 


ent. 




IMPERFECT. 


ais 


ions 


ais 


iez 


ait. 


aient. 




PRETERITE DEFINITE. 


ai 


A mes 


as 


A tes 


a. 


rent. 




FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 


rai 


rons 


ras 


rez 


ra. 


ront. 




CONDITIONAL MOOD. 




PRESENT. 


rais 


rions 


rais 


riez 


rait. 


raient 



50 



590 FRENCH GRAMMAR, 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 



e ons 

e ez 

ent. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT. 

e ions 

es iez 

e. ent. 

IMPERFECT. 

sse ssions 

sses ssiez 

A t ssent. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT. 

er. 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 

ant. 

PAST PARTICIPLE. 

e. ee. 



SECOND, THIRD, AND FOURTH CONJUGATIONS. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT. 

Singular. Plural. 



s 




ons 


s 




ez 


t. 


IMPERFECT. 


ent. 


ais 




ions 


ais 




iez 


ait. 


PRETERITE DEFINITE. 


aient. 


s 




A mes 


s 




A tes 


t. 


FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 


rent. 


rai 




rons 


ras 




rez 


ra. 




ront. 



CONJUGATION OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 591 



CONDITIONAL PRESENT. 

rais rions 

rais riez 

rait. raient 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 



ons 

ez 

ent. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT. 



e 


ions 


es 


iez 


e. 


ent. 




IMPERFECT. 


sse 


ssions 


sses 


ssiez 


*t 


ssent. 




INFINITIVE MOOD. 




PRESENT. 


2d. er. 


3d. oir. 4th. re. 




PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 



ant. 



The past participle, in the three last conjugations, varies too 
often to permit us to give it a regular termination. 



CONJUGATION OF THE IRREGULAR VERBS. 

First Conjugation. 

1891. Irregular Verbs, as we have already stated, are those 
which differ, in some of their tenses and persons, from those 
which we have given as models of the four regular conju- 
gations. 

Whatever may be the irregularity of a verb, it is irregular 
only in its simple tenses ; the compound are all regular ; there- 
fore we will suppress them in the following conjugations. 

There are only four irregular verbs in the first conjugation. 
They are the following : 



592 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



Aller, 
S'en aller, 
Envoyer, 
Renvoyer, 



to go. 

to go away. 

to send. 

to send back. 



Present. 
aller 



1892. Aller, to go. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Participle. 
allant 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Present 



Imperfect. 



je vais tu vas 

nous allons vous allez 

j'allais tu allais 

nous allions vous alliez 

Preterite Definite, j'allai tu alias 

nous allaraes vous allates 

Future Absolute, j'irai tu iras 

nous irons vous irez 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 



Present. 



j irais 
nous irions 



allons 



tu irais 
vous iriez 



IMPERATIVE. 



allez 



Present. 



Imperfect. 



Past Participle. 
alle\ 



il or elle va 
ils or elles vont 

il or elle allait 
ils or elles allaient. 

il or elle alia 

ils or elles all&rent. 

il or elle ira 
ils or elles iront. 



il or elle irait 

ils or elles iraient. 



qu'il or qu'elle 

aille. 
qu'ils or qu'elles 

aillent. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

que j'aille que tu ailles 

que nous allions que vous alliez 

que j'allasse que tu allasses 

que nous alias- que vous allas- 
sions siez 



qu'il or qu'elle 

aille 
qu'ils or qu'elles 

aillent. 
qu'il or qu'elle al- 

lat 
qu'ils or qu'elles 

allassent. 



The compound tenses of this verb as conjugated with the 
auxiliary verb etre, to be. 

Remark. Although the verb aller takes the auxiliary Ure 
in its compound tenses, yet, when the idea intended to be 
expressed is, that a person has been to a certain place, but has 
returned from it, we substitute for this verb the compound 
tenses of the verb to be ; the verb aller expressing only the 



s'en aller, to go away. 593 

fact of a person's having gone somewhere, without implying 
the idea of returning ; as, 

John has gone to school this morn- Jean a ete a l'ecole ce matin. (He 
ing\ has been, but has returned.) 

Jean est alls a l'ecole ce matin. (He 
has gone, but has not returned. ) 

We use the verb alltr to express the idea of going to see a 
person, when, while speaking, we are out of the house of the 
person we intend to visit ; but, if in the house, the verb venir 
ought to be employed ; as, 

I will go and see you to-morrow. J'irai vous voir demain. (Being out 

of the house.) 
I will come and see you to-morrow. Je viendrai vous voir demain. 

(While in the house.) 

Thus, aller signifies to go from where we are, to any other 
place, and venir signifies to come again to the place where the 
person is who speaks. 



1893. S'en aller, to go away. 

This verb presenting some difficulty to foreigners, we will 
conjugate it in all its tenses, and in the affirmative, negative, in- 
terrogative, and negative and interrogative forms. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT. 

to go away not to go away 

s'en aller. ne pas s'en aller. 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 

going away not going away 

s'en allant. ne s'en allant pas. 

PAST PARTICIPLE. 

gone away 
en alle. 

COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT OF THE INFINITIVE AND PAST 
PARTICIPLE. 

to have gone away not to have gone away, 

s'en etre alle. ne s ' en gtre pas alle. 

50* 



594 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT AND PAST PARTICIPLE. 



having gone away 
s'en etant alle. 



not having gone away 
ne s'en etant pas alle. 



Affirmative. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT. 

Negative. Interrogative. 



I go away, &c. I do not go away, do I go away ? 

&c. &c. 

je m'en vais je ne m'en vais m'en vais-je 

pas 

tu t'en vas tu ne t'en vas t'en vas-tu 

pas 

il s'en va il ne s'en va pas s'en va-t-il 

nous nous en al- nous ne nous en nous en allons- 

lons allons pas nous 

vous vous en al- vous ne vous en vous en allez- 

lez allez pas vous 

ils s'en vont, ils ne s'en vont s'en vont-ils 
pas. 

IMPERFECT. 



Negative and 
Interrogative. 

do I not go away ? 
&c. 

ne m'en vais-je pas 

ne t'en vas-tu pas 

ne s'en va-t-il pas 
ne nous en allons 

nous pas 
ne vous en allez 

vous pas 
ne s'en vont-ils 

pas ? 



I was going a- I was not going was I going a- was I not going 
way, &c. away, &c. way ? &c. away? &c. 

je m'en allais je ne m'en allais m'en allais-je ne m'en allais-je 



pas 
ne t'en allais-tu pas 

ne s'en allait-il pas 



pas 
tu t'en allais tu ne t'en allais t'en allais-tu 

pas 
il s'en allait il ne s'en allait s'en allait-il 

pas 
nous nous en al- nous ne nous en nous en allions- ne nous en allions- 

lions allions pas nous nous pas 

vous vous en al- vous ne vous en vous en alliez- ne vous en alliez- 

liez alliez pas vous vous pas 

ils s'en allaient. ils ne s'en al- s'en allaient-ils ? ne s'en allaient-ils 
laient pas. pas ? 



PRETERITE DEFINITE. 

I did go away, I did not go a- did I go away ? did I not go away? 
&c. way, &c. &c. &c. 

je ne m'en allai m'en allai-je ne m'en allai-je 

pas 
tu ne t'en alias t'en allas-tu 



je m'en allai 
tu t'en alias 
il s'en alia 



pas 
ne t'en allas-tu 



pas 
il ne s'en alia s'en alla-t-il 



pas 
ne s'en alla-t-il 
pas pas 

nous nous en al- nous ne nous en nous en allames- ne nous en al- 
lames allames pas nous lames-nous pas 
vous vous en al- vous ne vous en vous en allates- ne vous en allates- 

lates allates pas vous vous pas 

ils s'en allerent. ils ne s'en al- s'en allerent-ils ? ne s'en allerent-ils 



lerent pas. 



pas 



s'en alleRj to go away. 595 



PRETERITE INDEFINITE. 

I have gone I have not gone have I gone have I not gone 

away, &c. away, &c. away ? &c. away ? &c. 

je m'en suis alle je ne m'en suis m'en suis-je alle ne m'en suis-je pas 

pas alle alle 

tu t'en es alle tu ne t'en es pas t'en es-tu alle ne t'en es-tu pas 

alle' alle 

il s'en est alle il ne s'en est pas s'en est-il alle ne s'en est-il pas 

alle alle 

nous nous en nous ne nous en nous en sommes- ne nous en 

sommes alles sommes pas nous alles sommes-nous 

alles pas alles 

vous vous en vous ne vous en vous en etez- ne vous en etes- 

etes all£s etes pas alles vous alles vous pas alles 

ils s'en sont alles ils ne s'en sont s'en sont-ils al- ne s'en sont-ils pas 

pas alles les ? alles ? 

PLUPERFECT. 

I had gone a- I had not gone had I gone a- had I not gone a- 

way, &c. away, &c. way ? &c. way ? &c. 

je m'en etais al- je ne m'en etais m'en etais-je al- ne m'en etais-je 

le pas alle le pas alle 

tn t'en etais al- tu ne t'en etais t'en etais-tu alle ne t'en etais-tu 

le pas alle pas alle 

il s'en etait alle il ne s'en etait s'en etait-il alle ne s'en etait-il pas 

pas alle alle 

nous nous en e- nous ne nous en nous en etions- ne nous en etions- 

tions alles etions pas al- nous alles nous pas alles 
les 

vous vous en e- vous ne vous en vous en etiez- ne vous en etiez- 

tiez alles etiez pas alles vous alles vous pas alles 

ils s'en etaient ils ne s'en e- s'en etaient-ils ne s'en etaient-ils 

alles taient pas al- alles ? pas alles ? 
les. 

PRETERITE ANTERIOR. 

I had gone a- I had not gone had I gone a- had I not gone a- 

way, &c. away, &c. way ? &c. way ? 

je m'en fus alle je ne m'en fus m'en fus-je alle ne m'en fus-je pas 

pas alle alle 

tu t'en fus alle tu ne t'en fus t'en fus-tu alle ne t'en fus-tu pas 

pas alle alle 

il s'en fut alle il ne s'en fut s'en fut-il alle ne s'en fut-il pas 

pas alle alle* 
nous nous en nous ne nous en nous en fumes- ne nous en fumes- 
fumes alles fumes pas al- nous alles nous pas alles 
les 
vous vous en vous ne vous en vous en futes- ne vous en futes- 
futes alles futes pas al- vous alles vous pas alles 
Us 
ils s'en furent ils ne s'en furent s'en furent-ils ne s'en furent-ils 
alles pas alles alles ? pas alles ? 



596 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 

I shall or will I shall or will shall or will I shall or will I not 

go away, &c. not go away, go away ? &c. go away ? &c. 

&c. 

jem'enirai je ne m'en irai m'en irai-je ne m'en irai-je pas 

pas 

tu t'en iras tu ne t'en iras t'en iras-tu ne t'en iras-tu pas 

pas 

il s'en ira il ne s'en ira s'en ira-t-il ne s'en ira-t-il pas 

pas 
nous nous en nous ne nous en nous en irons- ne nous en irons- 
irons irons pas nous nous pas 
vous vous en vous ne vous en vous en irez- ne vous en irez- 

irez irez pas vous vous pas 

ils s'en iront. ils ne s'en iront s'en iront-ils ? ne s'en iront-ils 

pas. pas ? 

FUTURE ANTERIOR. 

I shall or will I shall or will shall or will I shall or will I not 

have gone not have gone have gone have gone away ? 

away, &c. away, &c. away ? &c. &c. 

je m'en serai al- je ne m'en serai m'enserai-je al- ne m'en serai-je 

]6 pas alle le pas alle 

tu t'en seras al- tu ne s'en seras t'en seras-tu al- ne t'en seras-tu 

le pas alle le pas alle 

il s'en sera al- il ne s'en sera s'en sera-t-il al- ne s'en sera-t-il 

le pas alle le pas alle 

nous nous en se- nous ne nous en nous en serons- ne nous en serons- 

rons alles serons pas alles nous alles nous pas alles 

vous vous en se- vous ne vous en vous en serez- ne vous en serez- 

rez alles serez pas alles vous alles vous pas alles 

ils s'en seront ils ne s'en seront s'en seront-ils ne s'en seront-ils 

alles. pas alles. alles ? pas alles ? 

CONDITIONAL MOOD. 

PRESENT. 

I should, would, I should, would, should, would, should, would, 

could, or might could, or might could, or might could, or might 

go away, &c. [ not go away, &c. I go away ? &c. I not go away ? 

&c. 

je m'en irais je ne m'en irais m'en irais-je ne m'en irais-je 

pas pas 

tu t'en irais tu ne t'en irais t'en irais tu ne t'en irais-tu 

pas pas 

il s'en irait il ne s'en irait s'en irait-il ne s'en irait-il pas 

pas 

nous nous en nous ne nous en nous en irions- ne nous en irions- 

irions irions pas nous nous pas 

vous vous en iriez vous ne vous en vous en iriez- ne vous en iriez- 

iriez pas vous vous pas 

ils s'en iraient. ils ne s'en iraient s'en iraient-ils ? ne s'en iraient-ils 

pas. pas ? 



s'en aller, to go away. 



597 



PAST. 



I should, would, I should, would, should, would, should, would, 

could, or might could, or might could, or might could, or might 

have gone away, not have gone I have gone I not have gone 

&c. away, &c. away ? &c. away ? &c. 



je men serais 
alle 

tu t'en serais 
alle 

il s'en serai t al- 
le 

nous nous en se- 
rious alles 

vous vous en se- 
riez alles 

ils s'en seraient 
alles. 



je ne men serais 

pas alle 
tu ne t'en serais 

pas alle 
il ne s'en serait 

pas alle 
nous ne nous en 
serions pas alles 
vous ne vous en 

seriez pas alle's 
ils ne s'en se- 
raient pas alles. 



nren serais-je 
alle* 

t'en serais-tu 
alle 

s'en serait-il al- 
le 

nousenserions- 
nous alles 

vous en seriez- 
vous alles 

s'en seraient-ils 
alles. 



ne nren serais-je 

pas alle 
ne t'en serais-tu 

pas alle 
ne s'en serait-il 

pas alle 
ne nous en seri- 
ons nous pas alles 
ne vous en seriez- 

vous pas alles 
nes'en seraient-ils 

pas alles. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 



go away 

va-t-en 

qu'il s'en aille 
allons-nous en 
allez-vous en 
qu'ils s'en aillent. 



do not go away 

ne t'en va pas 
qu'il ne s'en aille pas 
ne nous en allons pas 
ne vous en allez pas 
qu'ils ne s'en aillent pas. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



PRESENT. 



that I may go away, &c. 

que je m'en aille 
que tu t'en ailles 
qu'il s'en aille 
que nous nous en allions 
que vous vous en alliez 
qu'ils s'en aillent. 



that I may not go away, &c. 

que je ne m'en aille pas 
que tu ne t'en ailles pas 
qu'il ne s'en aille pas 
que nous ne nous en allions pas 
que vous ne vous en alliez pas 
qu'ils ne s'en aillent pas. 



IMPERFECT. 



that I might go away, &c. 

que je m'en allasse 

que tu t'en allasses 

qu'il s'en allat 

que nous nous en allassions 

que vous vous en allassiez 

qu'ils s'en allassent. 



that I might not go away, &c. 

que je ne m'en allasse pas 

que lu ne t'en allasses pas 

qu'il ne s'en allat pas 

que nous ne nous en allassions pas 

que vous ne vous en allassiez pas 

qu'ils ne s'en allassent pas. 



598 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



PRETERITE. 



that I may have gone away, &c. 

que je m'en sois alle 

que tu t'en sois alle 

qu'il s'en soit alle 

que nous nous en soyons alles 

que vous vous en soyez alles 

qu'ils s'en soient alles. 



that I may not have gone away, 
&c. 

que je ne m'en sois pas alle 

que tu ne t'en sois pas alle 

qu'il ne s'en soit pas alle 

que nous ne nous en soyons pas alles 

que vous ne vous en soyez pas alles 

qu'ils ne s'en soient pas alles. 



PLUPERFECT. 

that I might have gone away, &c 



que je m'en fusse alle 

que tu t'en fusses alle 

qu'il s'en fut alle 

que nous nous en fussions alles 

que vous vous en fussiez alles 

qu'ils s'en fussent alles. 



that I might not have gone away, 

&c. 

que je ne m'en fusse pas alle 
que tu ne t'en fusses pas alle 
qu'il ne s'en fut pas alle 
que nous ne nous en fussions pas 

alles 
que vous ne vous en fussiez pas 

alles 
qu'ils ne s'en fussent pas alles. 



1894. Envoyer, to send. 





INFINITIVE MOOD. 




Present. 


Present Participle. Past Participle. 


envoyer. 


envoyant. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 


envoye. 


Present. 


j'envoie 

nous envoyons 


tu envoies 
vous envoyez 


il envoie 
ils envoient. 


Imperfect. 


j'envoyais 
nous envoyions 


tu envoyais 
vous envoyiez 


il envoyait 
ils envoyaient. 


Preterite Definite 


j'envoyai 

nous envoyames 


tu envoyas 
vous envoyates 


il envoya 

ils envoyerent. 


Future. 


j'enverrai 
nous enverrons 


tu enverras 
vous enverrez 


il enverra 
ils enverront. 




CONDITIONAL MOOD. 




Present. 


j'enverrais 
nous enverrions 


tu enverrais 
vous enverriez 


il enverrait 
ils enverraient. 




IMPERATIVE MOOD. 






envoyons 


envoie 
envoyez 


qu'il envoie 
qu'ils envoient 



NEIGER, TO SNOW. 



599 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



Present. 



Imperfect. 



que j envoie 
que nous envoy- 
ions 



que tu envoies 
que vous envoy- 
iez 



qu'il envoie 
qu'ils envoient. 



que j'envoyasse que tu envoyasses qu'il en voyat 
que nous envoy- que vous envoy- qu'ils envoyassent. 
assions assiez 

Conjugate after the same manner the verb renvoyer, to send 
back. These two verbs are conjugated with the auxiliary 
avoir, to have. 

We have seen, that defective verbs are those which are not 
used in all their tenses and persons. 

1895. The following verbs are not only defective, but im- 
personal also, that is to say, they are used only in the third 
person singular of each tense. 



Neiger, 


to snow. 


Arriver, 


to happen. 


Bruiner, 


to drizzle. 


Degeler, 


to thaw. 


Eclairer, 


to lighten. 


Geler, 


to freeze. 


Greler, 


to hail. 


Gresiller, 


to rime. 


Importer, 


to matter. 


Resulter, 


to follow. 


Tonner, 


to thunder. (Speaking of 




the weather.) 



1896. Neiger, to snow. 



Present. 
neiger. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Participle. 
neigeant. 



Compound of the Infini- avoir neige. 
tive, and of the Pres- 
ent Participle. 



Present. 
Imperfect. 
Preterite Definite. 
Preterite Indefinite. 
Pluperfect. 



Past Participle. 



neige. 



ayant neige. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 

il neige, it snows, 

il neigeait, it snowed, 

il neigea, it did snow. 

il a neige, it has snowed, 

il avait neige, it had snowed, 



600 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



Preterite Anterior. 
Future Absolute. 
Future Anterior. 



il eut neige, 
il neigera, 
il aura neige, 



it had snowed. 

it shall or will snow. 

it shall or will have 
snowed. 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 



Present. 
Past. 



il neigerait, 
il aurait neige. 



it should, &c, snow. 

it should, &c, have 
snowed. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



Present. 
Imperfect. 
Preterite, 
Pluperfect. 



qu'il neige, 
qu'il neigeat, 
qu'il ait neige, 
qu'il eut neige, 



that it may snow. 

that it might snow. 

that it may have snowed. 

that it might have 
snowed. 



All the verbs contained in the list of defective and imper- 
sonal verbs on the preceding page, are conjugated like neiger. 



IRREGULAR, DEFECTIVE, AND IMPERSONAL VERBS OF 
THE SECOND CONJUGATION. 

1897. Acquerir, to acquire. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Present. 
acquerir. 



Present Participle. 
acquerant. 



Past Participle. 
acquis. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Present. 
Imperfect. 



j'acquiers 
nous acquerons 

j'acquerais 
nous acquerions 

Preterite Definite, j'acquis 

nous acquimes 



Future. 



j'acquerrai 
nous acquerrons 



tu acquiers 
vous acquerez 

tu acquerais 
vous acqueriez 

tu acquis 
nous acquites 

tu acquerras 
vous acquerrez 



il acquiert 
ils acquierent. 

il acquerait 
ils acqueraient. 

il acquit 

ils acquirent. 

il acquerra 
ils acquerront. 



CONDITIONAL, MOOD. 



Present. j'acquerrais tu acquerrais il acquerrait 

nous acquerrions vous acquerriez ils acquerraient. 



ASSAILLIR, TO ASSAULT. 601 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 



acquiers qu'il acquiere 

acquerons acquerez qu'ils acquierent. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



Present. que j'acquiere que tu acquieres qu'il acquiere 

que nous acque- que vous acque- qu'ils acquierent. 



nons nez 



Imperfect. que j'acquisse que tu acquisses qu'il acquit 

que nous acquis- que vous acquis- qu'ils acquissent. 



sions siez 



The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, 
to have. 

1898, The following verbs are conjugated in the same 
manner : 

Conquerir, to conquer. 

Querir, to fetch. 

Reconquerir, to conquer again. 

Requerir, to require. 

S'enquerir, to inquire. 

Of these verbs : 

Conquerir is defective, and only used in the present of 
the infinitive, preterite definite, imperfect of the subjunctive, 
past participle, and all the compound tenses. 

Querir is only used in the present of the infinitive, with the 
verbs oiler, envoyer, and venir ; but the compound expressions 
which it forms with these verbs are rarely employed by well- 
educated people. 

Reconquerir is used only in the same tenses as conquerir. 

S'enquerir is used in the present of the infinitive, preterite 
definite, imperfect of the subjunctive, past participle, and all 
the compound tenses. (Not much used.) 



1899. Assaillir, to assault. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Present. Present Participle. Past Participle 

assaillir. assaillant. assailli. 

51 



602 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 





INDICATIVE MOOD. 




Present. 


j'assaille 
nous assaillons 


tu assailles 
vous assaillez 


il assaille 
ils assaillent. 


Imperfect. 


j'assaillais 
nous assaillions 


tu assaillais 
vous assailliez 


il assail! ait 
ils assaillaient. 


Preterite Definite 


. j'assaillis 
nous assaillirnes 


tu assaillis 
vous assaillites 


il assaillit 
ils assaillirent. 


Future Present. 


j'aissaillirai 
nous assaillirons 


tu assailliras 
vous assaillirez 


il assaillira 
ils assailliront. 




CONDITIONAL MOOD. 




Present. 


j'assaillirais 
nous assaillirions 


tu assaillirais 
vous assailliriez 


il assaillirait 
ils assailliraient. 




IMPERATIVE MOOD. 






assaillons 


assaille 
assaillez 


qu'il assaille 
qu'ils assaillent. 




SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 




Present. 
Imperfect. 


que j'assaille 
que nous assail- 
lions 
que j'assaillisse 
que nous assail- 
lissions 


que tu assailles qu'il assaille 
que vous assail- qu'ils assaillent. 

liez 
que tu assaillisses qu'il assaillit 
que vous assail- qu'ils assaillissent 

lissiez 



The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, 
to have. Conjugate after the same manner tressaillir, to start. 



1900. Bouillir, to boil. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Present. 
bouillir. 



Present Participle. 
bouillant. 



Past Participle. 
bouilli. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Present. 
Imperfect. 



je bous 

nous bouillons 

je bouillais 
nous bouillions 



tu bous 
vous bouillez 

tu bouillais 
vous bouilliez 



Preterite Definite, je bouillis tu bouillis 

nous bouillimes vous bouillites 



Future Present. 



je bouillirai tu bouilliras 

nous bouillirons vous bouillirez 



il bout 

il bouillent. 

il bouillait 
ils bouillaient. 

il bouillit 
ils bouillirent. 

il bouillira 
ils bouilliront. 



COURIR, TO RUN. 



603 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 



Present. 



je bouillirais 
nous bouillirions 



tu bouillirais 
vous bouilliriez 



bouillons 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

bous 
bouillez 



il bouillirait 
ils bouilliraient. 



qu'il bouille 
qu'ils bouillent. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



Present. 



Imperfect. 



que je bouille 
que nous bouil- 
lions 

que je bouillisse 
que nous bouil- 
lissions 



que tu bouilles qu'il bouille 
que vous bouilliez qu'ils bouillent. 

que tu bouillisses qu'il bouillit 
que vous bouillis- qu'ils bouillissent. 
siez 



The compound tenses of bouillir are conjugated with the 
auxiliary avoir, to have. 

Conjugate after the same manner ; 



Ebouillir, 
Rebouillir, 



to boil away. (Not used.) 
to boil again. 



1901. These three verbs are not much used, except in the 
third persons of their several tenses, simple and compound. 
If any other person of these verbs is wanted, we use the verb 
faire, to make, with the infinitive ; as, 
I am boiling peas. Jefais bouillir des pois. 

But, in the passive sense of the verb to boil, bouillir is 
properly used in all its persons ; as, 
I am, I was, boiling with anger. Je bous, je bouillais de colere. 



1902. Courir, to run. 









INFINITIVE MOOD. 




Present. 






Present Participle. 


Past Participle 


courir. 






courant. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 


couru. 


Present. 


je cours tu cours 
nous courons vous courez 


il court 

ils courent. 


Imperfect. 


je courais tu courais 
nous courions vous couriez 


il courait 
ils couraient. 



604 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



Preterite Definite 


. je courus 
nous courumes 


tu courus 
vous courutes 


il courut 

ils coururent. 


Future Absolute. 


je courrai 
nous courrons 


tu courras 
vous courrez 


il courra 
ils courront. 




CONDITIONAL MOOD. 




Present: 


je courrais 
nous courrions 


tu courrais 
vous courriez 


il courrait 
ils courraient. 




IMPERATIVE MOOD. 








cours 


qu'il coure 




courons 


courez 


qu'ils courent 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present. que je coure que tu coures qu'il coure 

que nouscourions que vous couriez qu'ils courent. 

Imperfect. que je courusse que tu courusses qu'il courflt 

que nous courus- que vous courus- qu'ils courussent* 
sions siez 

1903. The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated 
with the verb avoir , to have. (See the exception, page 270, 
sec. 1034.) 

Conjugate in the same manner : 



Accourir, 

Concourir, 

Discourir, 

Encourir, 

Paxcourir, 

Recourir, 

Secourir, 



to run to. 

to concur. 

to discourse. 

to incur. 

to run over. 

to have recourse- 

to help. 



The compound tenses of the verb accourir are sometimes 
conjugated with etre, to be. (See page 269, sec. 1032.) 



1904. Cueillir, to gather. 



Present. 
cueillir. 



Present. 
Imperfect 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Participle, 
cueillant. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 



je cueille 
nous cueillons 



tu cueilles 
vous cueillez 



je cueillais tu cueillais 

nous cueillions vous cueilliez 



Past Participle. 
cueilli. 



il cueille 
ils cueillent 

il cueillait 
ils cueillaient. 



DORMIR, TO SLEEP. 



605 



Preterite Definite, je cueillis tu cueillis 

nous cueillimes vous cueillites 



il cueillit 

ils cueillirent. 



Future Absolute, je cueillerai tu cueilleras il cueillera 

nous cueillerons vous cueillerez ils cueilleront. 



Present. 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 



je cueillerais tu cuellerais il cueillerait 

nous cueillerions vous cueilleriez ils cueilleraient. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 



cueillons 



cueille 
cueillez 



qu'il cueille 
qu'ils cueillent 



Present. 



Imperfect. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

que je cueille que tu cueilles qu'il cueille 

que nous cueil- que vous cueil- qu'ils cueillent. 
lions liez 

que je cueillisse que tu cueillises qu'il cueillit 

que nous cueil- que vous cueil- qu'ils cueillissent. 
lissions lissiez 



The compound tenses of this and the following verbs are 

conjugated with avoir, to have. 

to welcome. 

to gather, to reap. 

1905. These verbs are conjugated after the same manner as 
cueillir. 



Accueillir, 
Recuiellir, 



1906. Dormir, to sleep. 



Present. 
dormir. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Participle. 
dormant. 



Past Participle. 
dormi. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Present. 



Imperfect. 



je dors 

nous dormons 

je dormais 
nous dormions 



tu dors 
vous dormez 

tu dormais 
vous dormiez 

tu dormis 
vous dormites 



Preterite Pefinite. je dormis 

nous dormimes 

Future Absolute, je dormirai tu dormiras 

nous dormirons vous dormirez 

51* 



il dort 

ils dorment. 

il dormait 
ils dormaient. 

il dormit 

ils dormirent. 

il dormira 
ils dormiront. 



606 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



Present. 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 

je dormirais tu dormirais 

nous dormirions vous dormiriez 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 



dormons 



dors 
dormez 



il dormirait 
il dormiraient. 



qu'il dorme 
qu'ils dorment. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



Present. 



Imperfect. 



que je dorme que tu dorrae3 qu'il dorme 
que nous dormions que vous dormiez qu'ils dorment. 

que je dormisse que tu dormisses qu'il dormit 
que nous dor- que vous dormis- qu'ils dormissent. 
missions siez 



1907. The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated 

with avoir, to have, as well as those of the following : 

Endormir, to lull asleep. 

Redormir, to sleep again. 

The two reflective verbs : 



S'endormir, 
Se rendormir, 



to fall alseep, 

to fall asleep again, 



have their compound tenses conjugated with etre, to be, as all 
other reflective verbs. 



190S. Faillir, to fail. 



This verb is defective, and only used in the tenses of the in- 
finitive mood, the preterite definite, and its derivative, the im- 
perfect of the subjunctive, as well as in all the compound 
tenses. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present. Present Participle- 

faillir. faillant. 



Preterite Definite, je fail lis tu faill is 

nous faillimes vous faillites 

Imperfect of the que je faillisse que tu faillisses 

Subjunctive. que nous faillis- que vous faillis- 
sions siez 



Past Participle. 
failli. 

il fail! it 
ils faillirent 

qu'il faillit 
qu'ils faillissent. 



The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, 
to have. 



FUIR, TO FLY. 



607 



1909. Fleurir, to blossom, to flourish. 

This verb is regular in all its tenses and persons, when it 
means to blossom; but when used figuratively, and meaning to 
flourish, it makes its present participle florissant, and its imper- 
fect florissais, &c. Thus we say : 

The arts were flourishing at Rome. Les arts florissaient a Rome. 
Commerce being flourishing-, the Le commerce florissant, la ville 
city appears lively. parait gaie. 

1910. Refleurir, to flourish again, follows the same rule. 
These two verbs are conjugated with avoir, to have. 



1911. Fuir, to fly. 



Present. 
fuir. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Participle. 
fuyant. 



Past Participle. 
fui. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. je fuis tu fuis il fuit 

nous fuyons vous fuyez ils fuient. 

Imperfect. je fuyais tu fuyais il fuyait 

nous fuyions vous fuyiez ils fuyaient. 

Preterite Definite, je fuis tu fuis il fuit 

nous fuimes vous fuites ils fuirent. 

Future Absolute, je fuirai tu fuiras il fuira 

nous fuirons vous fuirez ils fuiront. 



Present. 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 



je fuirais 
nous fuirions 



tu fuirais 
vous fuiriez 



il fui rait 
ils fuiraient. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

fuis 
fuyons fuyez 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



qu'il fuie 
qu'ils fuient 



Present. que je fuie que tu fuies qu'il fuie 

que nous fuyons que vous fuyez ' qu'ils fuient. 

Imperfect. que je fuisse que tu fuisses qu'il fuit 

que nous fuissions que vous fuissiez qu'ils fuissent 

The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, 
to have. 



608 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



1912. Conjugate in the same manner shnfuir, to run away, 
with the verb etre, to be, in its compound tenses. 



1913. Gesir, to lie. 

This verb is defective, and no longer in use ; but we still 
say, il git, he lies, ci-glt, here lies, and gissant, lying, in obit- 
uary sentences. 



1914. Hair, to hate. 

This verb is regular, except in the singular of the present of 
the indicative, in which the diaeresis is suppressed, as well as 
in the second person singular of the imperative ; as, 
Je hais, tu hais, il hait ; hais. 

It is conjugated with avoir, to have. 

The diaeresis, placed over the i, causes this letter to be 
sounded by itself, and prevents its being joined to the preced- 
ing vowel in the pronunciation. 



1915. Mourir, to die. 



Present. 
mourir. 

Present. 
Imperfect. 
Preterite Definite. 
Future Absolute. 

Present. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Participle. 
mourant. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 



je meurs 
nous mourons 

je mourais 
nous mourions 

je mourns 
nous mourumes 

je mourrai 
nous mourrons 



tu meurs 
vous mourez 

tu mourais 
vous mouriez 

tu mourus 
vous mourutes 

tu mourras 
vous mourrez 



je mourrais 
nous mourrions 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 

tu mourrais 
vous mourriez 



Past Participle. 
mort. 



il meurt 
ils meurent. 

il mourait 
ils mouraient. 

il mourut 

i]s moururent 

il mourra 
ils mourront. 



il mourrait 
ils mourraient* 



OUVRIR, TO OPEN. 



609 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

meurs 
3 mourez 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



qu'il meure 
qu'ils meurent. 



Present. que je meure que tu meures qu'il meure 

que nous mou- que vous mouriez qu'ils meurent 
rions 

Imperfect. que je mourusse que tu mourusses qu'il mourut 

que nous mou- que vous mou- qu'ils mourussent 
russions russiez 

This verb is conjugated with the auxiliary verb etre, to be. 
The reflective verb se mourir is conjugated like the preceding. 



1916. Ou'ir, to hear. 

This verb is only used now in the preterite definite, in the 
imperfect of the subjunctive, in the infinitive, and all its com- 
pound tenses ; as, 
J'ouis, il oui't, que j'ouisse, qu'il ou'it, ou'ir, j'ai oui, &c. 

with the auxiliary, avoir, to have. 

The signification of this verb is far from being so extended 
as that of entendre ; it is said only of a temporary sound which 
we hear by chance and without design. We must not use it 
in speaking of a minister, a lawyer, a speech, but we say 
very properly : 

To hear the mass. Ou'ir la masse. 

Lord ! deign to hear our prayer. Seigneur! daignez ou'ir nos prieres. 

Speaking of a vague rumor we say : 

1 have heard it. Je l'ai oui dire. 



1917. Ouvrir, to open. 



Present, 





INFINITIVE MOOD. 




Present. 
ouvrir. 


Present Participle. 
ouvrant 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 


Past Participle. 
ouvert. 


> 


j'ouvre tu ouvres 
nous ouvrons vous ouvrez 


il ouvre 
ils ouvrent 



610 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



Imperfect. 



nous ouvnons 



Preterite Definite, j'ouvris 

nous ouvrimes 

Future Absolute, j'ouvrirai 

nous ouvrirons 



tu ouvrais 
vous ouvriez 

tu ouvris 
vous ouvrite3 

tu ouvriras 
vous ouvrirez 



Present. 



Present. 
Imperfect. 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 

j'ouvrirais tu ouvrirais 

nous ouvririons vous ouvririez 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

ouvre 
ouvrons ouvrez 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

que j'ouvre que tu ouvres qu'il ouvre 

que nous ouvrions que vous ouvriez qu'ils ouvrent 

que jouvrisse que tu ouvrisses qu'il ouvrit 
que nous ouvris- que vous ouvris- qu'ils ouvrissent. 
sions siez 



il ouvrait 
ils ouvraient. 

il ouvrit 

ils ouvrirent. 

il ouvrira 
ils ouvriront 



il ouvrirait 
ils ouvriraient. 



qu'il ouvre 
qu'ils ouvrent 



1918. Conjugate this verb and the following with the auxil- 
iary avoir ) to have : 



Rouvrir, 

Entr'ouvrir. 

Couvrir, 

Recouvrir, 

Decouvrir, 

Offrir, 

Mesoffrir (not used), 

Souffrir, 



to open again, 
to half open, 
to cover, 
to cover again, 
to discover, 
to offer, 
to underbid, 
to suffer. 



1919. Sentir, to feel. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Present. 


Present Participle. 


Past Participle. 


sentir. 


sentant. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 


senti. 


Present. 


je sens tu sens 
nous sentons vous sentez 


il sent 

ils sentent. 


Imperfect. 


je sentais tu sentais 
nous sentions vous sentiez 


il sentait 
ils sentaient. 


Preterite Definite. 


je sentis tu sentis 
nous sentimes vous sentites 


il sentit 

ils sentirent. 



SERVIR, TO SERVE. 



611 



Future Absolute. 


je sentirai tu sentiras 
nous sentirons vous sentirez. 

CONDITIONAL MOOD. 


il sentira 
ils sentiront. 


Present. 


je sentirais tu sentirais 
noussentirions vous sentiriez 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 


il sentirait 
ils sentiraient 




sens 
sentons sentez 


qu'il sente 
qu'ils sentent 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



Present. que je sente que tu sentes qu'il sente 

que nous sentions que vous sentiez qu'ils sentent. 

Imperfect. que je sentisse que tu sentisses qu'il sentit 

que nous sentissi- que vous sentis- qu'ils sentissent. 
ons siez 

The tenses of this verb are conjugated with the auxiliary 
avoir, to have. 

1920. Conjugate in the same manner : 



Consentir, 

Presentir, 

Ressentir, 

Mentir, 

Dementir, 

Repartir, 



to consent, 
to foresee. 
to resent, 
to lie. 

to give the lie. 
to reply. 



1921. Conjugate with etre, to be : 

Se ressentir, to feel still. 

Se repentir, to repent. 

Partir, to set out, to depart. 

Repartir, to set out again. 

Sortir, to go out. 

Ressortir, to go out again. 

The two last verbs are sometimes also conjugated with avoir, 
to have. (See page 275, sec. 1043.) 



1922. Servir, to serve. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present. Present Participle. 

servir. servant. 



Past Participle. 



servi. 



Present. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



je sers 
nous servons 



tu sers 
vousservez 



il sert 

ils servent. 



612 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



Imperfect. je servais tu servais 

nous servions vous serviez 

Preterite Definite, je servis tu servis 

nou3 servimes vous servites 

Future Absolute, je servirai tu serviras 

nous servirons vous servirez 



il servait 
ils servaient. 

il servit 

ils servirent. 

il servira 
ils serviront. 



Present. 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 



je servirais 
nous servirions 



tu servirais 
vous serviriez' 



il servirait 
ils serviraient. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 



servons 



sers 
servez 



qu'il serve 
qu'ils servent. 



Present. 



Imperfect. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD, 

que je serve que tu serves qu'il serve 

que nous servi- que vous serviez qu'ils servent. 
ons 



que je servisse 
que nous servis- 
sions 



que tu servisses 
que vous servis- 
siez 



qu'il servit 
qu'ils servissent. 



1923. This verb is conjugated with the auxiliary avoir, to 
have, as well as desservir, to clear a table, to do an ill office to 
some body. The reflective verb se service takes the auxiliary 
etre, to be. Asservir, a compound of servir, and meaning to 
subject, is regular, and is conjugated like Jinir. 



1924. Tmir, to hold, 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Present. 


Present . 


Participle. 


Past Participle. 


tenir. 


tenant. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 


tenu. 


Present. 


je tiens 
nous tenons 


tu tiens 
vous tenez 


il tient 

ils tiennent. 


Imperfect. 


je tenais 
nous tenions 


tu tenais 
vous teniez 


il tenait 
ils tenaient. 


Preterite Definite 


je tins 
nous tinmes 


tu tins 
vous tintes 


il tint, 
ils tinrent. 


Future Absolute. 


je tiendrai 
nous tiendrons 


tu tiendras 
vous tiendrez 


il tiendra 
ils tiendront 



TENIR, TO HOLD. 



613 



Present, 



CONDITIONAL. MOOD. 



je tiendrais 
nous tiendrions 



tu tiendrais 
voqs tiendriez 



il tiendrait 
ils tiendraient 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 





tenons 


tiens 
tenez 


qu'il tienne 
qu'ils tiennent. 




SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 




Present. 


que je tienne 
que nous tenions 


que tu tiennes 
que vous teniez 


qu'il tienne 
qu'ils tiennent 


Imperfect, 


que je tinsse 
que nous tinssi- 


que tu tinsses 
que vous tinssiez 


qu'il tint 
qu'ils tinssent. 



The compound tenses of this verb take the auxiliary avoir, 
to have. 

1925. Conjugate, after this manner : 



Appartenir,* 

Avenir, 

Circonvenir,* 

Contenir,* 

Contrevenir,* 

Convenir, 

Deprevenir,* 

Detenir,* 

Devenir, 

Disconvenir, 

Entretenir,* 

Intervenir, 

Maintenir,* 

Mesavenir, 

Obtenir,* 



to belong, 
to happen, 
to circumvent, 
to contain, 
to contravene, 
to agree, 
to unprepossess. 
to detain, 
to become, 
to disagree, 
to entertain. 
to intervene, 
to maintain, 
to succeed ill. 
to obtain. 



Parvenir, 
Prevenir,* 

Provenir, 

Redevenir, 

Retenir,* 

Revenir, 

S'abstenir, 

Soutenir,* 

Se ressouvenir, 

Se souvenir, 

Subvenir,* 

Survenir, 

Venir, 



to attain. 

to prevent, to in- 
form. 

to proceed from. 

to become again. 

to retain. 

to come back. 

to abstain. 

to sustain. 

to recollect. 

to remember. 

to relieve. 

to come unexpect- 
edly. 

to come. 



Those of the above verbs which are marked with an aste- 
risk are conjugated with avoir, to have, and the others with 
etre, to be. 

1926. Avenir, to happen, is only used in the third person 
singular of the present of the indicative, il avient, and in the 
past participle, avenu. 

1927. Provenir, to proceed from, is only used in its third 
persons, singular and plural, and in its compound tenses. 



52 



614 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



1928. Vetir, to clothe. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present. Present Participle. 

vetir. vetant. 



Past Participle 
vetu. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Present. 


je v£ts 
nous vetons 


tu vets 
vous vetez 


il vet 

ils vetent. 


Imperfect. 


je vetais 
nous vetions 


tu vetais 
vous vetiez 


il vetait 
ils vetaient. 


Preterite Definite 


je vetis 
nous vetiraes 


tu vetis 
vous vetites 


il vetit 

ils vetirent. 


Future Absolute. 


je vetirai 
nous veiirons 


tu vetiras 
vous vetirez 


il vetira 
ils vetiront. 




CONDITIONAL MOOD. 




Present. 


je vetirais 
nous vetirions 


tu vetirais 
vous vetiriez 


il vetirait 
ils vetiraient 




IMPERATIVE MOOD. 






vetons 


vets 
vetez 


qu'il vete 
qu'ils vetent 



Present, 
Imperfect. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

que je vete que tu vetes qu'il vete 

que nous vetions que vous vetiez qu'ils vetent. 

quejevetisse que tu vetisses qu'il vetit 

que nous vetissi- que vous vetissiez qu'ils vetissent. 
ons 



The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir y 

to have. 

1929. Conjugate, in the same manner : 

Re vetir, to clothe. 

D6v£tir, to strip, to undress. 

Se vetir, 



Se devetir, 



to dress. 

to divest one's self. 



The last two verbs, being reflective, are conjugated with 
etre, to be* 



BENIR, RESSORTIR, ETC. 615 



1930. Remark. 

The verb benir, to bless, which is not included in this list, 
has two past participles, beni, e, speaking of persons, and 
binit, e, speaking of things ; as, 

Be blessed among all women. Soyez btnie parmi toutes les femmes 

(speaking of the Holy Virgin). 
The promises of the courtiers are Les promesses des grands ne sont 
too often but court holy water. trop sou vent que de 1'eau Unite de 

cour. 

1931. When ressortir signifies to be under the jurisdiction 
of a court, and repartir means to divide, these two verbs are 
regular, and are conjugated like Jinir ; as, 

This business was under the juris- Cette affaire ressortissait a la cour, 

diction of the court. and not ressortait. 

When he returned to the army, he Quand il repartait pour l'armee, il 

divided his property among his repartissait ses biens entre ses 

friends. amis. 

It must be remembered, that repartir, to start again, is writ- 
ten without any accent, but repartir, to divide, has an acute 
accent over the e. 

1932. Ferir is only used in the infinitive, and in the follow- 
ing expression : 

Without striking a blow. Sans coup/^n'r. 

1933. Saillir, a term of architecture, has but the infinitive, 
present participle, saillant, and the third persons, singular and 
plural, of the present of the indicative. When meaning to 
gush, to spout out, it has the same tenses, and the past partici- 
ple, sailli, with all the compound tenses, but then it is conjuga- 
ted like^rar; as, 

This cornice projects too much. Cette corniche saille trop. 

The water gushed with much force. Les eaux saillissent avec beaucoup 

de force. 



616 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



IRREGULAR, DEFECTIVE, AND IMPERSONAL VERBS OF 
THE THIRD CONJUGATION. 

1934. Avoir , to have. 

This verb (active and auxiliary) has been already conjugated 
in all its forms. 



Ravoir, to have again. 

This verb, active and defective, is only used in the present 
of the infinitive. 



Y Avoir , there to be. 
This verb, impersonal, has been conjugated in all its forms. 



1935. S'Asseoir, to sit down. 



Present. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Participle. 
s'asseyant. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Past Participle. 



Present. 



Imperfect. 



je m'assieds 
nous nous asse- 
yons 

je m'asseyais 
nous nous asse- 
yions 



tu t'assieds 
vous vous asse- 
yez 

tu t'asseyais 
vous vous asse- 
yiez 



il s'assied 
ils s'asseyent. 

il s'asseyait 
ils s'asseyaient. 



Preterite Definite 


je m'assis 


tu t'assis 


il s'assit 




nous nous assimes 


vous vous assites 


ils s'assirent. i 


Future Absolute. 


je m'assierai, or 


tu t'assieras, or 


il s'assiera, or 




je m'asseyerai 


tu t'asseyeras 


il s'asseyera 




nous nous assie- 


vous vous assie- 


ils s'assieront, or 




rons, or 


rez, or 






nous nous asse- 


vous vous asse- 


ils s'asseyeront. 




yerons 


yerez 






CONDITIONAL MOOD. 




Present. 


je m'assierais, or 


tu t'assierais, or 


il s'assierait, or 




je m'asseyerais 


tu t'asseyerais 


il s'asseyerait 




nous nous assie- 


vous vous assie- 


ils s'assieraient, 




lions, or 


riez, or 


or 




nous nous asse- 


vous vous asseye- 


ils s'asseyeraient. 


• 


yerions 


riez 





s'asseoir, to sit down. 



617 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 



tOl 

asseyons-nous asseyez-vous 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



Present. 



Imperfect. 



que je m asseye 
que nous nous 
asseyions 

que je m'assisse 
que nous nous 
assissions 



que tu t asseyes 
que vous vous 
asseyiez 

qu tu t'assisses 
que vous vous 



qu'il s'asseye 
qu'ils s'asseyent. 



qu'ils s'asseye 
qu'ils s'asseyent. 

qu'il s'assit 
qu'ils s'assissent. 



This verb, like all reflective verbs, is conjugated with the 
auxiliary etre, to be. 

1936. The verb asseoir, used actively, is conjugated like the 
reflective, with the exception of the reflective pronouns, which 
must be suppressed, and then it takes avoir, to have, in its 
compound tenses. 

1937. The Academy, as well as usage, permits this verb to 
be conjugated in the following manner : 



Present. 
assoir. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Participle. 
assoyant. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Present. 
Imperfect. 



j assois 

nous assoyons 



j assoyais 
nous assoyions 

Preterite Definite, j'assis 

nous assimes 

Future Absolute, j'assoirai 

nous assoirons 



tu assois 
vous assoyez 

tu assoyais 
vous assoyiez 

tu assis 
vous assites 

tu assoiras 
vous assoirez 



Past Participle. 



il assoit 
ils assoient. 

il assoyait 
ils assoyaient 

il assit 

ils assirent. 

il assoira 
ils assoiront. 



Present. 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 



j assoirais 
nous assoirions 



tu assoirais 
vous assoiriez 



il assoirait 
ils assoiraient. 



assoyons 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

assois 
assoyez 



qu'il assoie 
qu'ils assoient. 



Present. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



que j'assoie que tu assoies qu'il assoie 

que nous asso- que vous assoyiez qu'ils assoient. 
yions 

52* 



618 

Imperfect. 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



que j assisse 
que nous assis- 
sions 



que tu assisses 
que vous assis- 
siez 



quil assit 
qu'ils assissent. 



These three modes of conjugating the verb asseoir are in use 
in France, and admitted by the Academy, but we recommend 
the first as the most generally adopted by people of educa- 
tion. 



1938. Choir, to fall. 

This verb is extremely defective, and used only in the pres- 
ent of the infinitive, and sometimes in the past participle and 
compound tenses ; but it is an old word, and ought to be 
avoided. 



1939. Dechoir, to decay. 



Present. 
dechoir. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Participle. 
decheant. 



Past Participle. 
dechu. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. je dechois tu dechois 

nous dechoyons nous dechoyez 

Imperfect. (Not used.) 

Preterite Definite, je dechus tu dechus 

nous dechumes vous dechutes 

Future Present. (Not used.) 



Present. 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 

(Not used.) 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 



(Not used.) 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



il dechoit 
iJs dechoient. 



il dechut 

ils dechurent. 



Present. 
Imperfect. 



que je dechoie 
que nous decho- 
yions 

que je dechusse 
que nous dechus- 
sions 



que tu dechoies qu'il dechoie 

que vous dechoy- qu'ils dechoient. 
iez 

que tu dechusses qu'il dechut 

que vous dechus- qu'ils dechussent, 
siez 



FALLOIR, TO BE NECESSARY. 



619 



This verb is conjugated with either of the auxiliaries, avoir, 
or etre, according to the meaning of the sentence. 



1940. Echoirj to expire, to be due, to fall, to fall due. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Present. Present Participle. 


Past Participle. 


echoir. eeheant. 


echu. 


INDICATIVE MOOD. 




Present. 


il echoit, echet 
ils echoient. 


Imperfect. (Not used.) 




Preterite Definite. 


il echut 

ils echurent. 


Future Present. 


il echerra 
ils echerront 


CONDITIONAL MOOD. 




Present. 


il echerrait 
ils echerraient. 


IMPERATIVE MOOD. 




(Not used.) 




SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 




Present. 


qu'il echoie 
qu'ils echoient. 


Imperfect. 


qu'il echiit 
qu'ils echussent. 



The compound tenses are only used in the third persons 
singular and plural, and take avoir, or etre, according to the 
meaning of the sentence. 



1941. Falloir, to be necessary. 
(Impersonal. Corresponding to the English verb must.) 





INFINITIVE MOOD. 




Present. 


Present Participle. 


Past Participle. 


falloir. 


fallant. 


fallu. 



620 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



Present. 
Imperfect. 
Preterite Definite. 
Future Absolute. 



Present. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 

il faut. 
il fallait. 

il fallut. 
il faudra. 

CONDITIONAL MOOD. 

il faudrait. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

qu'il faille, 
qu'il fallut. 



Present. 
Imperfect. 

The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, 
to have, and in the third person singular only, the verb being 
impersonal. 

1942. The English expression, I must, he must, the Jcing 
must, &c, are rendered by 

II faut que je, which means literally It must that I, 

II faut que il, " " " It must that he, 

II faut que le roi, " " " It must that the king, — 

that is to say, by il faut que, followed by the nominative of 
the English verb must ; and the verb following is used in the 
subjunctive mood, in a tense corresponding to that of the verb 
falloir in the principal proposition. 







1943. Mouvoir, to move. 








INFINITIVE MOOD. 




Present. 




Present Participle. 


Past Participle 


mouvoir. 




mouvant. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 


mu 


Present. 


je meus tu meus 
nous mouvons vous mouvez 


il meut 

ils meuvent. 


Imperfect. 


je mouvais tu mouvais 
nous mouvions vous mouviez 


il mouvait 
ils mouvaient 


Preterite Definite 


je mus tu mus 
nous mumes vous mutes 


il mut 

ils murent. 



PLEUVOIR, TO RAIN. 



621 



Future Absolute, je mouvrai 

nous mouvrons 



tu mouvras 
vous mouvrez 



il mouvra 
ils mouvront. 



Present. 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 



je mouvrais 
nous mouvrions 



tu raouvrais 
vous mouvriez 



il mouvrait 
ils mouvraient. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 



mouvons 



meus 
mouvez 



qu'il meuve 
qu'ils meuvent. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



Present. 



Imperfect. 



que je meuve que tu meuves qu'il meuve 
que nous mou- que vous mouviez qu'ils meuvent. 
vions 

que je musse 
que nous mus- 
sions 



que tu musses qu'il mut 

que vous mussiez qu'ils mussent. 



The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with the 
auxiliary avoir, to have. 

Conjugate in the same manner. 



Emouvoir, 

Promouvoir, 

S'emouvoir, 



to move. 

to promote. 

to be concerned. 



1944. The verb promouvoir is only used in the present of 
the infinitive, the past participle, and the compound tenses ; 
it takes avoir, to have. 

^emouvoir, being reflective, is conjugated, like all reflec- 
tive verbs, with etre, to be. 



1945. Pleuvoir, to rain. (Impersonal.) 



Present. 
pleuvoir. 

Present. 
Imperfect. 
Preterite Definite. 
Future Absolute. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Participle. 
pleuvant. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

il pleut. 
il pleuvait. 
il plut. 
il pleuvra. 



Past Participle. 
plu. 



622 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 

Present il pleuvrait. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present qu'il pleuve. 

Imperfect qu'il plut. 

The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with the 
auxiliary avoir, to have, and only in the third person singular. 



1946. Pourvoir, to provide. 



Present 
pourvoir. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Participle. 
pourvoyant. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Past Participle. 
pourvu. 



Present je pourvois tu pourvois il pourvoit 

nous pourvoyons vous pourvoyez ils pourvoient. 

Imperfect je pourvoyais tu pourvoyais il pourvoyait 

nous pourvoyions vous pourvoyiez ils pourvoyaient. 

Preterite Definite, je pourvus tu pourvus il pourvut 

nous pourvumes vous pourvutes ils pourvurent. 

Future Absolute, je pourvoirai tu pourvoiras il pourvoira 

nous pourvoirons vous pourvoirez ils pourvoiront. 



Present 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 

je pourvoirais tu pourvoirais 
nouspourvoinons vous pourvoiriez 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 



pourvoyons 



pourvois 
pourvoyez 



il pourvoirait 
ils pourvoiraient. 



qu'il pourvoie 
qu'ils pourvoient 



Present. 



Imperfect 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

que je pourvoie que tu pourvoies qu'il pourvoie 

que nous pour- que vous pour- qu'ils pourvoient. 
voyions voyiez 

que je pourvusse que tu pourvusses qu'il pourvut 

que nous pour- que vous pour- qu'ils pourvussent. 
vussions vussiez 



The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, 
to have. 



SAVOIR, TO KNOW. 



623 



1947. Pouvoir, to be able. 





INFINITIVE MOOD. 




Present. 


Present 


Participle. 


Past Participle. 


pouvoir. 


pouvant- 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 


pu. 


Present 


je peux, or puis 
nous pouvons 


tu peux 
vous pouvez 


il peut 

ils peuvent. 


Imperfect. 


je pouvais 
nous pouvions 


tu pouvais 
vous pouviez 


il pouvait 
ils pouvaient. 


Preterite Definite 


je pus ^ 
nous pumes 


tu pus 
vous putes 


il put 

ils purent. 


Future Absolute. 


je pourrai 
nous pourrons 


tu pourras 
vous pourrez 


il pourra 
ils pourront. 




CONDITIONAL MOOD. 




Present. 


je pourrais 
nou3 pourrions 


tu pourrais 
vous pourriez 


il pourrait 
ils pourraient. 




SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 




Present. 


que je puisse 
qus nous puis- 
sions 


que tu puisses 
que vous puis- 
siez 


qu'il puisse 
qu'ils puissent. 


Imperfect. 


que je pusse 
que nous pus- 


que tu pusses 
que vous pus- 


qu'il put 
qu'ils pussent. 



The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir , 
to have. 



1948. Savoir, to know. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Present. Present Participle. 
savoir. sachant. 


Past Participle, 
su. 


INDICATIVE MOOD. 




Present je sais tu sais 

nous savons vous savez 


il sait 
ils savent. 


Imperfect. je savais tu savais 

nous savions vous saviez 


il savait. 
ils savaient. 


Preterite Definite, je sus tu sua 

nous sumes vous sutes 


il sut 

ils surent. 


Future Absolute, je saurai tu sauras 

nous saurons vous saurez 


il saura 
ils sauront. 



624 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



Present. 



Present. 



Imperfect. 



je saurais 
nous saurions 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 

tu saurais 
vous sauriez 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

sache 
sachons sachez 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



il saurait 
ils sauraient. 



qu'il sache 
qu'ils sachent. 



que je sache que tu saches qu'il sache 

que nous sa- que vous sachiez qu'ils sachent. 
chions 

que je susse que tu susses qu'il sut 

que nous sussions que vous sussiez qu'ils sussent, 



The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, 
to have. 



1949. Seoir, to fit, to become, to fit well. (Defective. 



Present. 



Present. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Present. 


Present Participle. 


Past Participle. 


seoir. 


seyant. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 


sis. 


^resent. 


il sied 


ils sieent. 


hnperfect. 


il seyait 


ils seyaient. 


Future Absolute. 


il siera 


ils sieront. 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 

il sierait ils sidraient. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

qu'il siee que'ils sient. 

This verb has only the above tenses and persons, and has 
no compound tenses. 



1950. Surseoir, to reprieve, to put off. 

This verb is only used in the present of the infinitive, the 
past participle, sursis, and the compound tenses taken passively 
and impersonally ; as, 

The sentence has been put off. II a ete sursis au jugement. 



VALOIR, TO BE WORTH, 



625 



1951. Valoir, to be worth. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Present 
valoir. 


Present Participle. 
valant. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 


Past Participle. 
valu. 


Present. 


je vaux tu vaux 
nous valons vous valez 


il vaut 
ils valent. 


Imperfect. 


je valais tu valais 
nous valions vous valiez 


il valait 
ils valaient. 


Preterite Definite 


je valus tu valus 
nous valumes vous valutes 


il valut 

ils valurent. 


Future Absolute. 


je vaudrai tu vaudras 
nous vaudrons vous vaudrez 

CONDITIONAL MOOD. 


il vaudra 
ils vaudront. 


Present. 


je vaudrais tu vaudrais 
nous vaudrions vous vaudriez 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 


il vaudrait 
ils vaudraient. 




vaux 
valons valez 


qu'il vaille 
qu'ils vaillent. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



Present. 
Imperfect. 



que je vaille que tu vailles qu'il vaille 

que nous valions que vous valiez qu'ils vaillent. 

que je valusse que tu valusses qu'il valut 

que nous valus- que vous valus- qu'ils valussent. 



1952. The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with 

avoir, to have, as well as the following : 

Revaloir, to return like for like. 

Equivaloir, to be equivalent. 

Prevaloir, to prevail. 

This last verb makes its present of the subjunctive as fol- 
lows : 



queje prevale 
que nous prevalions 



que tu prevales 
que nous prevaliez 



qu'il prevale 
qu'ils prevalent. 



53 



626 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 





1953. Voir, to see. 






INFINITIVE MOOD. 




Present. 
voir. 


Present Participle. 
voyant. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 


Past Participle. 
vu. 


Present. 


je vois tu vois 
nous voyons nous voyez 


il voit 
ils voient. 


Imperfect. 


je voyais tu voyais 
nous voyions vous voyiez 


il voyait 
ils voyaient. 


Preterite Definite 


je vis tu vis 
nous vimes vous vites 


il vit 

ils virent. 


Future Absolute. 


je verrai tu verras 
nous verrons vous verrez 

CONDITIONAL MOOD. 


il verra 
ils verront. 


Present. 


je verrais tu verrais 
nous verrions vous verriez 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 


il verrait 
ils verraient. 




vois 
voyons voyez 


qu'il voie 
qu'ils voient. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present. que je voie que tu voies qu r il voie 

que nous voyions que vous voyiez qu'ils voient. 

Imperfect. que je visse que tu visses qu'il vit 

que nous vissions que vous vissiez qu'ils vissent. 

The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, 
to have, as well as those of the following : 



Revoir, 

Entrevoir, 

Prevoir, 



to see again. 

to have a glimpse of. 

to foresee. 



1954. This last verb makes its future and conditional as fol- 
lows : 
Future Absolute, je prevoirai tu prevoiras il prevoira 

nous prevoirons vous prevoirez ils prevoiront 

Conditional je prevoirais tu prevoirais il pre*voirait 

Present. nous prevoirions vous prevoiriez ils prevoiraient 



Present. 
vouloir. 



1955. Vouloir, to be willing. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Participle. Past Participle. 

voulant. voulu. 



BATTRE, TO BEAT. 



627 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. je veux tu veux 

nous voulons vous voulez 

Imperfect. je voulais tu voulais 

nous voulions vous vouliez 

Preterite Definite, je voulus tu voulus 

nous voulumes vous voulutes 

Future Absolute, je voudrai tu voudras 

nous voudrons vous voudrez 



il veut 

ils veulent. 

il voulait 
ils voulaient. 

il voulut 

ils voulurent. 

il voudra 
ils voudront. 



Present. 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 



je voudrais 
nous voudrions 



tu voudrais 
vous voudriez 



il voudra it 
ils voudraient. 



veuillons 



MPERATIVE MOOD. 

veuille 
veuillez 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present. que je veu; e qu< tu veu les 

que nous voulions que v< us vouliez 

Imperfect. que je voulusse que tu voulusses 

que nous voulus- que vous voulus- 
sions siez 



qu'il veuille 
qu'ils veuillent. 



qu'il veuille 
qu'ils veuillent. 

qu'il voulut 
qu'ils voulussent. 



The compound tenses of this verb take the auxiliary avoir, 
to have. 



IRREGULAR, DEFECTIVE, AND IMPERSONAL VERBS, OF THE 
FOURTH CONJUGATION. 



1956. Battre, to beat. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Present. 
battre. 


Present Participle. 
battant. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 


Past Participle 
battu. 


Present. 


je bats 
nous battons 


tu bats 

vous battez 


il bat 

ils battent. 


Imperfect. 


je battais 
nous battions 


tu battais 
vous battiez 


il battait 
ils battaient. 


Preterite Definite 


. je battis 
nous battimes 


tu battis 
vous battites 


il battit 

ils battirent. 


Future Absolute. 


je battrai 
nous battrons 


tu battras 
vous battrez 


il battra 
ils battront. 



628 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



Present. 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 



je battrais 
nous battrions 



tu battrais 
vous battriez 



il battrait 
ils battraient. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 



battons 



bats 
battez 



qu'il batte 
qu'ils battent. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present. que je batte que tu battes qu'il batte 

que nous battions que vous battiez qu'ils battent. 

Imperfect. que je battisse que tu battisses qu'il battit 

que nous battissi- que vous battis- qu'ils battissent. 
ons siez 

The compound tenses of battre are conjugated with avoir, 
to have, as well as those of the following : 



Abattre, 

Combattre, 

Debattre, 

Rabattre, 

Rebattre, 



to pull or cut down. 

to fight. 

to debate. 

to pull down again, to abate. 

to beat. 



The two following, being reflective, are conjugated with etre, 
to be. 



S'ebattre, 
Se debattre, 



to make, or to be, merry, 
to struggle. 



1957. Boire, to drink. 



Present. 
boire. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Participle. 
buvant. 



Past Participle. 
bu. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Present. 



Imperfect. 



je bois 
nous buvons 

je buvais 
nous buvions] 



Preterite Definite, je bus 

nous bumes 

Future Absolute, je boirai 

nous boirons 



tu bois 
vous buvez 

tu buvais 
vous buviez 

tu bus 
vous butes 

tu boiras 
vous boirez 



il boit 

ils boivent. 

il buvait 
ils buvaient. 

ilbut 

ils burent. 

il boira 
ils boiront. 



Present. 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 



je boirais 
nous boirions 



tu boirais 
vous boiriez 



il boirait 
ils boiraient. 



CLORE, TO CLOSE. 



C29 



bavons 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

bois 
buvez 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



qu'il boive 
qu'ils boivent. 



Present. que je boive que tu boives qu'il boive 

que nousbuvions que vous buviez qu'ils boivent. 

Imperfect. que je busse que tu busses qu'il but 

que nous bussions que vous bussiez qu'ils bussent. 

The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, 
to have, as well as those of reboire, to drink again.. 



1958. Clore, to close. (Defective.) 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Present. Present 


Participle. 


Past Participle. 


clore. closant. 


clos. 


INDICATIVE MOOD. 




Present. je clos 

nous closons 


tu clos 
vous closez 


il clot 

ils clos j t. 


Imperfect. tu closais 

nous closions 


tu closais 
vous closiez 


il closait 
ils closaient. 


Future Absolute, je clorai 

nous clorons 


tu cloras 
vous clorez 


il clora 
ils cloront. 


CONDITIONAL MOOD. 




Present. je clorais 

nous clorions 


tu clorais 
vous cloriez 


il clorait 
ils cloraient. 


IMPERATIVE MOOD. 




closons 


clos 
closez 


qu'il close 
qu'ils closent 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



Present. 



que je close que tu closes qu'il close 

que nous closions que vous closiez qu'ils closent. 



This verb, in its compound tenses, is conjugated with avoir, 
to have, as well as eclore, to hatch, and enclore, to enclose. 



53 



630 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



1959. Conclure, to conclude. 



Present. 
conclure. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Participle. 
concluant. 



Past Participle. 
conclu. 



Present. 



Imperfect. 



je cone] us 
nous concluons 

je concluais 
nous concluions 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 

tu conclus 
vous concluez 

tu concluais 
vous concluiez 



Preterite Definite, je conclus tu conclus 

nous conclumes vous conclutes 

Future Absolute, je conclurai tu concluras 

nous conclurons vous conclurez 



il conclut 
ils concluent. 

il concluait 
ils concluaient. 

il conclut 

ils conclurent. 

il conclura 
ils concluront. 



Present. 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 



je conclurais 
nous conclurions 



tu conclurais 
vous concluriez 



il conclurait 
ils concluraient. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 



Present. 
Imperfect. 



concluons 



conclus 
concluez 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



que je conclue 
que nous conclui- 
ons 



que tu conclues 
que vous conclui- 
ez 



qu'il conclue 1 
qu'ils concluent. 



qu'il conclue 
qu'ils concluent. 



que je conclusse que tu conclusses qu'il conclut 
que nous conclus- que vous conclus- qu'ils conclussent. 
sions siez 



The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, 
to have, as well as those of exclure, to exclude. 



1960. Confire, to pickle. 









INFINITIVE MOOD. 






Present. 




Present Participle. 


Past Participle. 




con fire. 




confisant. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 


confit. 


Present. 


je confis tu confis 
nous confisons vous confisez 


il confit 

ils confisent. 


Imperfect. 


je confisais tu confisais 
nous confisions vous confisiez 


il confisait 
ils confisaient 





COUDRE 


, TO SEW. 


1 


Preterite Definite. 


je confis 
nous confimes 


tu confis 
vous confites 


il confit 

ils confirent. 


Future Absohte. 


je confirai 
nous confirons 


tu confiras 
vous confirez 


il confira 
ils confiront. 




CONDITIONAL MOOD. 




Present. 


je confirais 
nous confirions 


tu confirais 
vous confiriez 


il confirait 
ils confiraient. 




IMPERATIVE MOOD. 






confisons 


confis 
confisez 


qu'il confise 
qu'ils confisent 



631 



Present. 



Imperfect. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

que je confise que tu confises qu'il confise 

que nous confisi- que vousconfisiez qu'ils confisent. 
ons 

que je confisse que tu confisses qu'il confit 

que nous confis- que vous confis- qu'ils confissent. 
sions siez 



The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, 
to have, as well as those of the following : 



Suffire, 
Circoncire, 



to suffice, 
to circumcise. 



1961. Coudre, to sew. 



Present. 
coudre. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Participle. 
cousant. 



Past Participle. 
cousu. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Present. '' 
Imperfect. 



je couds 
nous cousons 

je cousais 
nous cousions 

Preterite Definite, je cousis 

nous cousimes 

Future Absolute, je coudrai 

nouscoudrons 



tu couds 
vous cousez 

tu cousais 
vous cousiez 

tu cousis 
vous cousites 

tu coudras 
vous coudrez 



il coud 
ils cousent. 

il cousait 
ils cousaient. 

il cousit 
ils cousirent. 

il coudra 
ils coudront. 



Present. 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 



je coudrais 
nous coudrions 



tu coudrais 
vous coudriez 



il coudrait 
ils coudraient. 



632 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



cousons 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

couds 
cousez 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



qu'il couse 
qu'ils cousent 



Present. que je couse que tu couses qu'il couse 

que nous cousi- que vous cousiez qu'ils cousent. 
ons 

Imperfect. que je cousisse que tu cousisses qu'il cousit 

que nous cousis- que vous cousis- qu'ils cousissent. 
sions siez 

The compound tenses of this verb take avoir, to have. 
Conjugate, in the same manner : 



Decoudre, 
Recoudre, 



to rip. 

to sew again. 



1962. Croire, to believe. 





INFII 


IITIVE MOOD. 




Presen 


I. Present Participle. 


Past Participle. 


croire 


croyant. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 


cru. 


Present. 


je crois 
nous croyons 


tu crois 
vous croyez 


il croit 
ils croient. 


Imperfect. 
Preterite Definite. 


je croyais 
nous croyions 

je crus 
nous crumes 


tu croyais 
vous croyiez 

tu crus 
vous crutes 


il croyait 
ils croyaient. 

il crut 

ils crurent. 


Future Absolute. 


je croirai 
nous croirons 


tu croiras 
vous croirez 


il croira 
ils croiront. 




CONDITIONAL MOOD. 




Present. 


je croirais 
nous croirions 


tu croirais 
vous croiriez 


il croirait 
ils croiraient. 




IMPERATIVE MOOD. 






croyons 


crois 
croyez 


qu'il croie 
qu'ils croient. 



Present. 
Im i erfeci. 



SUtJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

que je croie que tu croies qu'il croie 

que nous croyions que vous croyiez qu'ils croient. 

quejecrusse quetucrusses qu'il crut 

que nous crus- que vous crussiez qu'ils crussent. 
sions 



CR01TRE, TO GROW. 



633 



The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with 
avoir, to have, as well as those of accroire, to make one be- 
lieve, which is only used in the infinitive present with the 
verb faire, to make ; as, 

To make one believe, Faire accroire. 



1963. Croitre, to grow. 



Present. 
croitre. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Participle. 
croissant. 



Past Participle 
cru. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Present. 
Imperfect. 



je crois 

nous croissons 

je crossais 
nous croissions 



Preterite Definite, je crus 

nous crumes 



Future Absolute. 



je croitrai 
nous croitrons 



tu crois 
vouscroissez 

tu croissais 
vous croissiez 

tu crus 
vous crutes 

tu croitras 
vous croitrez 



il crolt 

ils croissent. 

il croissait 
ilscroissaient. 

il crut 

ils crurent. 

il croitra 
ils croitront. 



Present. 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 



je croitrais 
nous croitrions 



tu croitrais 
vous croitriez 



il croitrait 
ils croitraient. 



croissons 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

crois 
croissez 



qu'il croisse 
qu'ils croissent. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



Present. 



Imperfect. 



que je croisse 
que nous croissi- 
ons 

que je crusse 
que nous crussi- 
ons 



que tu croisses qu'il croisse 

que vous croissiez qu'ils croissent. 

que tu crusses qu'il crut 

que vous crussi- qu'ils crussent. 
ez 



This verb is conjugated with avoir or etre, according as its 
signification is active or passive. 
Conjugate in the same manner : 



Accroitre, 
Decroitre, 



to increase, 
to decrease. 



634 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



1964. Dire, to say. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Present. 


Present Participle. 


Past Participle. 


dire. 


disant. 




dit. 




INDICATIVE MOOD. 




Present. 


je dis 
nous disons 


tu dis 
vous dites 


il dit 

ils disent. 


Imperfect. 


je disais 
nous disions 


tu disais 
vous disiez 


il disait 
ils disaient. 


Preterite Definite 


je dis 
nous dimes 


tu dis 
vous dites 


il dit 

ils dirent. 


Future absolute. 


je dirai 
nous dirons 


tu diras 
vous direz 


il dira 
ils diront. 




CONDITIONAL, MOOD. 




Present. 


je dirais 
nous dirions 


tu dirais 
vous diriez 


il dirait 
ils diraient. 




IMPERATIVE MOOD. 






disons 


dis 

dites 


qu'il dise 
qu'ils disent 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



Present. 
Imperfect, 



que je dise que tu dises qu'il dise 

que nous disions que vous disiez qu'ils disent. 

que je disse que tu disses qu'il dit 

que nous dissions que vous dissiez qu'ils dissent. 



The verb dire is conjugated with the auxiliary avoir, to have. 
Conjugate in the same manner, 

Redire, to say again. 

1965. The following verbs, 



Contredire, 

Dedire, 

Interdire, 

Maudire, 

Medire, 

Predire, 

Se dedire, 



to contradict, 
to disown, 
to interdict, 
to curse, 
to slander, 
to foretell, 
to recant, 



are conjugated also like dire, with the exception, that their 



ECRIRE, TO WRITE. 



635 



second person plural of the present of the indicative makes 



contredisez, 


medisez, 


predisez 


dedisez, 


maudissez, 


dedisez. 


interdisez, 







JHaudire, to curse, takes ss in maudissant, in the three 
persons plural of the present of the indicative, maudissons, 
maudissez, maudissent, in all the persons of the imperfect, in 
the third person singular and the three persons plural of the 
present of the subjunctive, quHl maudisse, que nous maudis- 
sions, &c. ; the other tenses are conjugated like dire. 



1966. Ecrire. to write. 



Present. 
ecrire. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Participle. 
ecrivant. 



Past Participle. 



ecnt. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Present. 
Imperfect. 



j ecris 

nous ecrivons 

j'ecrivais 
nous ecrivions 



Preterite Definite, j 'ecrivis 

nous ecrivimes 

Future Absolute, j'ecrirai 

nous ecrirons 



tu ecris 
vous ecrivez 

tu ecrivais 
vous ecriviez 

tu ecrivis 
vous ecrivites 

tu ecriras 
vous ecrirez 



il ecrit 

ils ecrivent. 

il ecrivait 
iJs ecrivaient. 

il ecrivit 

ils ecrivirent. 

il ecrira 
ils ecriront. 



Present. 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 



j ecnrais 
nous ecririons 



tu ecnrais 
vous ecririez 



il ecrirait 
ils ecriraient. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 



ecris 
ecrivez 



qu'il ecrive 
qu'ils ecrivent. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present. que j'ecrive que tu ecrives qu'il ecrive 

que nous ecri- que vous ecriviez qu'ils ecrivent. 
vions 

Imperfect. que j'ecrivisse que tu ecrivisses qu'il ecrivit 

que nous ecrivis- que vous ecrivis- qu'ils ecrivissent. 

sions siez 



636 



FRENCH GRAMMAR, 



The verb ecrire is conjugated with avoir, to have. 
1967. Conjugate in the same manner, 



Circonscrire, 

Decrire, 

Inscrire, 

Prescrire, 

Proscrire, 

Recrire, 

Souscrire, 

Transcrire, 



to circumscribe, 
to describe, 
to inscribe, 
to prescribe, 
to proscribe, 
to write again, 
to subscribe, 
to transcribe. 



1968. Etre, to be. 
This verb has been conjugated in all its forms, page 530. 



1969. Faire, to make, to do, to cause. 



Present. 
faire. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Participle. 
faisant. 



Past Participle. 
fait. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Present. 



je fais, 
nous faisons 



je faisais 
nous faisions 



Imperfect. 

Preterite Definite, je fis 

nous fimes 

Future Absolute, je ferai 

nous ferons 



Present. 



tu fais 
vous faites 

tu faisais 
vous faisiez 

tu fis 
.vous fites 

tu feras 
vous ferez 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 



je ferais 
nous ferions 



tu ferais 
vous feriez 



il fait 
ils font. 

il faisait 
ils faisaient. 

il fit 

ils firent. 

il fera 
ils feront. 



il ferait 
ils feraient. 



faisons 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

fais 
faites 



qu'il fasse 
qu'ils fassent. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present. que je fasse que tu fasses qu'il fasse 

que nous fassions que vous fassiez qu'ils fassent. 

Imperfect. que je fisse que tu fisses qu'il fit 

que nous fissions que vous fissiez qu'ils fissent. 



FRIRE, TO FRY. 



637 



1970. This verb is conjugated with the auxiliary avoir, to 
have. 

Conjugate in the same manner, 



Contrefaire, 

Defaire, 

Redefaire, 

Refaire, 

Satisfaire, 

Surfaire, 



to counterfeit. 

to undo. 

to undo again. 

to do again. 

to satisfy. 

to ask too much. 



Some writers have adopted a different orthography for several 
of the tenses of this verb ; as nous fesons, and all the tenses 
derived from the present participle, fesant ; but the Academy 
has not yet sanctioned it. 



1971. Frire, to fry. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 






Present. 


Past 


Participle. 


frire. 




frit. 


INDICATIVE MOOD. 






\ je fris tn fris 




il frit. 


Absolute, je frirai tu friras 

nous frirons vous frirez 




il frira 
ils friront. 


CONDITIONAL MOOD. 






je frirais tu frirais 
nous fririons vous fririez 




il frirait 
ils friraient 


IMPERATIVE MOOD. 






fris. 







This verb is defective, and only used in the above tenses, 
and in all the compound tenses, which are formed with avoir, 
to have. 

In order to supply the tenses and persons which are want- 
ing, we use the verb faire, to make, in those tenses and per- 
sons, with the verb frire in the infinitive ; as, 



We fry. 
You fry. 



Nous faisons frire. 
Vous faites frire, &c. 



54 



638 



FRENCH GRAMMAR, 



1972. Joindre, to join. 





INFINITIVE MOOD. 




Present. 


Present 


Participle. 


Past Participle. 


join d re. 


joignant. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 


joint. 


Present. 


je joins 
vous joignons 


tu joins 
vous joignez 


il joint 

ils joignent. 


Imperfect. 


je joignais 
nous joignions 


tu joignais 
vous joigniez 


il joignait 
ils joignaient. 


Preterite Definite 


. je joignis ^ 
nous joignimes 


tu joignis 
vous joignites 


il joignit 
ils joignirent 


Future Absolute. 


je joindrai 
vous joindrons 


tu joindras 
vous joindrez 


il joindra 
ils joindront. 




CONDITIONAL MOOD. 




Present. 


je joindrais 
nous joindrions 


tu joindrais 
vous joindriez 


il joindrait 
ils joindraient. 




IMPERATIVE MOOD. 






joignons 


joins 
joignez 


qu'il joigne 
qu'ils joignent 



Present. 
Imperfect. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

que je joigne que tu joignes qu'il joigne 

que nous joignions que vous joigniez qu'ils joignent. 

que je joignisse que tu joignisses qu'il joignit 
que nous joignis- que vous joignis- qu'ils joignissent. 
sions siez 



The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with 
avoir, to have. 

1973. Conjugate in the same manner all the verbs ending 
in aindre, eindre, oindre, in the present of the infinitive ; as 



Craindre, 

Peindre, 

Poindre, 

Also, 

Astreindre, 

Atteindre, 

Ceindre, 

Contraindre, 

Enfreindre, 

Eteindre, 



to fear. 
to paint, 
to dawn. 



to subject, to compel. 

to reach, to overtake. 

to gird. 

to constrain. 

to infringe. 

to put out, to extinguish- 



LIRE, TO READ. 



639 



Feindre, 
Plaindre, 
Restreindre, 
Teindre, 



to feign, to pretend, 
to pity, 
to restrain, 
to dye. 



1974. Lire, to read. 



Present. 
lire. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Participle. 
lisant. 



Past Participle 
lu. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Present. 



Imperfect. 



je lis 
nous lisons 

je lisais 
nous lisions 



Preterite Definite, je lus 

nous lumes 



Future Absolute. 



je lirai 
nous lirons 



tu lis 
vous lisez 

tu lisais 
vous lisiez 

tu lus 
vous lutes 

tu liras 
vous lirez 



il lit 

ils lisent. 

il lisait 
ils lisaient. 

il lut 

ils lurent. 

il lira 
ils liront. 



Present. 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 



je lirais 
nous lirions 



tu lirais 
vous liriez 



il lirait 
ils liraient. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

lis 
lisons lisez 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



qu'il lise 
qu'ils lisent. 



Present. que je lise que tu lises qu'il lise 

que nous lisions que vous lisiez qu'ils lisent. 

Imperfect. que je lusse que tu lusses qu'il lut 

que nous lussions que vous lussiez qu'ils lussent. 

This verb is conjugated with avoir, to have. 
Conjugate in the same manner, 



Elire, 
Relire, 



to elect. 

to read again. 



640 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



1975. Mettre, to put. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Present. 


Present 


Participle. 


Past Participle. 


mettre. 


mettant. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 


mis. 


Present, 


je mets 
nous mettons 


tu mets 
vous mettez 


il met 

ils mettent. 


Imperfect. 


je mettais 
nous mettions 


tu mettais 
vous mettiez 


il mettait 
iis mettaient. 


Preterite Definite 


je mis 
nous mimes 


tu mis 
vous mites 


il mit 

ils mirent. 


Future Absolute. 


je mettrai 
nous mettrons 


tu mettras 
vous mettrez 


il mettra 
ils mettront. 




CONDITIONAL MOOD. 




Present. 


je mettrais 
nous mettrions 


tu mettrais 
vous mettriez 


il mettrait 
ils mettraient. 




IMPERATIVE MOOD. 






mettons 


mets 
mettez 


qu'il mette 
qu'ils mettent. 




SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 




Present. 


que je mette 
que nous met- 
tions 


que tu mettes qu'il mette 
que vous mettiez qu'ils mettent. 


Imperfect. 


que je misse 
que nous mis- 
sions. 


que tu misses 
que vous mis- 
sions 


qu'il mit 
qu'ils missent. 



This verb is conjugated with avoir, to have. 

Conjugate in the same manner : 

Admettre, to admit. 

Commettre, to commit. 

Compromettre, to compromise. 

Demettre, to disjoint, to put out. 

Omettre, to omit. 

Permettre, to permit. 

Promettre, to promise. 

Remettre, to put again, to set again, to re- 
place. 

Soumettre, to submit. 

Transmettre, to transmit. 

Se demettre, to resign. 

S'entremettre, to interpose. 

The last two verbs, being reflective, take the auxiliary, etre, 

to be. 



NAITRE, TO BE BORN. 

1976. Moudre, to grind. 



641 



Present. 
moudre. 



Present. 



Imperfect. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Participle. 
moulant. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 



je mouds 
nous moulons 

je moulais 
nous moulions 



Preterite Definite, je moulus 

nous moulumes 

Future Absolute, je moudrai 

nous raoudrons 



tu mouds 
vous moulez 

tu moulais 
vous mouliez 

tu moulus 
vous moulutes 

tu moudras 
vous moudrez 



Past Participle. 
moulu. 



il moud 
ils moulent. 

il moulait 
ils moulaient. 

il raoulut 

ils moulurent. 

il moudra 
ils moudront. 



Present. 



Present. 



Imperfect. 



il moudrait 
ils moudraient. 



qu'il moule 
qu'ils moulent. 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 

je moudrais tu moudrais 

nous moudrions vous moudriez 

IMPERATIVE. 

mouds 
moulons moulez 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

que je moule que tu moules qu'il moule 
que nous mou- que vous mou- qu'ils moulent. 
lions liez 

que je moulusse que tu moulusses qu'il moulut 
que nous mou- que vous mou- qu'ils moulussent. 
lussions lussiez 



This verb is conjugated with the auxiliary avoir, to have. 
Conjugate in the same manner : 



Emoudre, 
Remoudre, 



to grind, to whet, 
to grind again. 



1977. Naitre, to be born. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Present. 



Present. 


Present Participle. 


Past Participle. 


naitre. 


naissant. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 


ne. 




je nais tu nais 


il nait 




nous naissons vous naissez 


ils naissent. 



54* 



642 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



Imperfect. 


je naisais 
nous naissions 


tu naissais 
vous naissiez 


il naissait 
ils naissaient. 


Preterite Pejinile 


je naquis 
nous naquimes 


tu naquis 
vous naquites 


il naquit 

ils naquirent. 


Future Absolute. 


je naitrai 
nous naitrons 


tu naitras 
vous naitrez 


il naitra 
ils naitront. 




CONDITIONAL MOOD. 




Present. 


je naitrais 
nous naitrions 


tu naitrais 
vous naitriez 


il naitrait 
ils naitraienl. 




IMPERATIVE MOOD. 






naissons 


nais 
naissez 


qu'il naisse 
qu'ils naissent 



Present. 



Imperfect. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

que je naisse que tu naisses qu'il naisse 
que nous nais- que vous nais- qu'ils naissent. 
sions siez 

que je naquisse que tu naquisses qu'il naquit 
que nous naquis- que vous naquis- qu'ils naquissenc. 
sions siez 



This verb is conjugated with the auxiliary etre, to be. 
Conjugate in the same manner : 

Renaitre, to revive. 



1978. Paitre, to graze. 





INFINITIVE MOOD. 




Present. 


Present 


Participle. 


Past Participle. 


paitre. 


paissant. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 


pu. 


Present. 


je pais 

nous paissons 


tu pais 
vous paissez 


il pait 

ils paissent. 


Imperfect. 


je paissais 
nous paissions 


tu paissais 
vous paissiez 


il paissait 
ils paissaient. 


Future Absolute. 


je paitrai 
nous paitrons 


tu paitras 
vous paitrez 


il paitra 
ils paitront. 




CONDITIONAL MOOD. 




Present. 


je paitrais 
nous paitrions 


tu paitrais 
vous paitriez 


il paitrait 
ils paitraient. 




IMPERATIVE MOOD. 






paissons 


pais 
paissez 


qu'il paisse 
qu'ils paissent, 



PARAITRE, TO APPEAR. 



643 



This verb, which is very little used, has no compound tens- 
es, no preterite definite, and no imperfect of the subjunctive. 
1979. Conjugate in the same manner : 



Repaitre, 
Se repaitre, 



to feed. 

to feed one's self. 



These two verbs have a preterite definite and imperfect of 

the subjunctive ; as, 

il reput 

ils repurent 

qu'il reput 
qu'ils repussent. 



je repus 
nous repumes 

que je repusse 
que nous repussions 



tu repus 
vous reputes 



qui tu repusses 
que vous repussiez 



The compound tenses of repaitre, are conjugated with avoir, 
and those of se repaitre with etre, to be. 



1980. Paraitre, to appear. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Present. 
paraitre. 


Present Participle- Past Participle. 
paraissant. paru. 






INDICAT 


1VE MOOD. 






Present. 


je parais 

nous paraissons 


tu parais 
vous paraissez 


il parait 

ils paraissent. 




Imperfect. 


je paraissais 
nous paraissions 


tu paraissais 
vous paraissiez 


il paraissait 
ils paraissaient. 


♦ 


Preterite Definite 


. je parus 
nous parumes 


tu parus 
vous parutes 


il parut 

ils parureut. 




Future Absolute. 


je paraitrai 
nous paraitrons 


tu paraitras 
vous paraitrez 


il paraitra 
ils paraitront. 






CONDITIONAL MOOD. 






Present. 


je paraitrais 
nous paraitrions 


tu paraitrais 
vous paraitriez 


il paraitrait 
ils paraitraient. 






IMPERATIVE MOOD. 








paraissons 


parais 
paraissez 


qu'il paraisse 
qu'ils paraissent. 






SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 




• 


Present. 


que je paraisse 
que nous parais- 
sions 


que tu paraisses 
que vous parais- 
siez 


qu'il paraisse 
qu'ils paraissent. 




Imperfect. 


que je parusse 
que nous parus- 
sions 


que tu parusses 
que vous parus- 
siez 


qu'il parut 
qu'ils parussent. 





644 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with 
avoir, to have. 

Conjugate in the same manner : 



Apparaitre, 

Comparaitre, 

Connaitre, 

Disparaitre, 

Me*connaitre, 

Reconnaitre, 

Reparaitre, 

Se meconnaitre, 



to appear. 



to know. 

to disappear. 

to mistake, to forget. 

ta recognize. 

to appear again. 

to forget one's self. 

The compound tenses of the last verb are conjugated with 
etre, to be. 



19S1. Flake, to please. 





INFINITIVE MOOD. 




Present. 


Present 


Participle. 


Past Participle. 


plaire. 


Pi 


aisant. 


plu. 




INDICATIVE MOOD. 




Present 


je plais 
nous plaisons 


tu plais 
vous plaisez 


il plait 

ils plaisent. 


Imperfect. 


je plaisais 
nous plaisions 


tu plaisais 
vous plaisiez 


il plaisait 
ils plaisaient. 


Preterite Definite 


. je plus 
nous plumes 


tu plus 
vous plutes 


il plut 

ils plurent. 


Future Absolute. 


je plairai 
nous plairons 


tu plairas 
vous plairez 


il plaira 
ils plairont. 




CONDITIONAL MOOD. 




Present. 


je plairais 
nous plairions 


tu plairais 
vous plairiez 


il plairait 
ils plairaient. 




IMPERATIVE MOOD. 






plaisons 


plais 
plaisez 


qu'il plaise 

qu'ils plaisent. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Pressnt. que je plaise que tu plaises qu'il plaise 

que nous plai- que vous plai- qu'ils plaisent. 
sions siez 

Imperfect. que je plusse que tu plusses qu'il plut 

que nous plus- que vous plus- qu'ils plussent. 
sions siez 

The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, 
to have. 



PRENDRE, TO TAKE 



645 



Conjugate in the same manner : 

Complaire, to please. 

Deplaire, to displease. 

Taire, to conceal. 

Se Taire, to be silent. 

This last verb, being reflective, is conjugated with etre, to 



be. 



Present. 



1982. Poindre, to shoot forth, to dawn. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

poindre. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. il point. 

Future Absolute, il poind ra. 

This verb is defective, and the above tenses and persons are 
the only ones in use. 



1983. Prendre, to take. 



Present. 
prendre. 


Present Participle. 
prenant. 


Past Participle. 
pris. 




INDICAT 


IVE MOOD. 




Present. 


je prends 
nous prenons 


tu prends 
vous prenez 


il prend 

ils prennent. 


Imperfect. 


je prenais 
nous prenions 


tu prenais 
vous preniez 


il prenait 
ils prenaient. 


Preterite Definite 


. je pris 
nous primes 


tu pris 
vous prites 


il prit 

ils prirent 


Future Absolute. 


je prendrai 
nous prendrons 


tu prendras 
vous prendrez 


il prendra 
ils prendront. 




CONDITIONAL MOOD. 




Present. 


je prendrai s 
nous prendrions 


tu prendrais 
vous prendriez 


il prendrait 

ils prendraient. 




IMPERATIVE MOOD. 






prenons 


prends 
prenez 


qu'il prenne 
qu'ils prennent 



646 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



Present. 



Imperfect. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

que je prenne que tu prennes qu'il prenne 
que nous pre- que vous pre- qu'ils prennent. 
nions niez 



que je pnsse 
que nous pris- 
sions 



que tu prisses 
que vous pris- 



qu'il prit 
qu'ils prissent. 



The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, 
to have. 

Conjugate in the same manner : 



Apprendre, 

Comprendre, 

Deprendre, 

Desapprendre, 

Entreprendre, 

Rapprendre, 

Reprendre, 

Surprendre, 

Se meprendre, 

Se prendre, 



to learn, 
to understand, 
to loosen, 
to unlearn, 
to undertake, 
to learn again, 
to take again, 
to surprise, 
to mistake, 
to be smitten. 



The two last verbs, being reflective, are conjugated with Mre, 
to be. 





1984. Reduire, to reduce 






INFINITIVE MOOD. 




Present. 


Present Participle. 


Past Participle. 


reduire. 


reduisant. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 


reduit. 


Present. 


je reduis 
nous reduisons 


tu reduis 
vous reduisez 


il reduit 

ils reduisent. 


Imperfect. 


je reduisais 
nous reduisions 


tu reduisais 
vous reduisiez 


il reduisait 
ils reduisaient. 


Preterite Definite 


. je reduisis 
nous reduisimes 


tu reduisis 
vous reduisites 


il reduisit 

ils reduisirent. 


Future Absolute. 


je reduirai 
nous reduirons 


tu reduiras 
vous reduirez 


il reduira 
ils reduiront. 




CONDITIONAL MOOD. 




Present. 


je reduirais 
nous reduirions 


tu reduirais 
vous reduiriez 


il reduirait 
ils reduiraient. 




IMPERATIVE MOOD. 






reduisons 


reduis 
reduisez 


qu'il reduise 
qu'ils reduisent 



RESOUDRE, TO RESOLVE. 



647 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present. que je reduisse que tu reduisses qu'il reduisse 

que nous redui- que vous redui- qu'ils reduissent.. 

sions siez 

Imperfect. que je reduisisse que tu reduisisses qu'il reduisit 

que nous redui- que vous redui- qu'ils reduisissent. 

sissions sissiez 



The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with 

nr, to have. 

1985. Conjugate in the same manner, 



Conduire, 

Construire, 

Cuire, 

Deduire, 

Detruire, 

Econduire, 

Enduire, 

Entreluire, 

Induire, 

Instruire, 

Introduire. 



to conduct, 
to construct, 
to bake, 
to deduct, 
to destroy, 
to discard in a 

polite manner, 
to plaster, 
to shine a little, 
to induce, 
to instruct, 
to introduce. 



Luire, 

Nuire, 

Produire, 

Reconduire, 

Reconstruire, 

Recuire, 

Reluire, 

Renduire, 

Reproduire, 

Seduire, 

Traduire, 



to shine, to glow. 
to hurt, 
to produce, 
to reconduct, 
to construct again, 
to bake again, 
to shine, to glow, 
to plaster again, 
to reproduce, 
to seduce, 
to translate. 



1986. Resoudre, to resolve, to dissolve. 



Present. 
resoudre. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Participle. 
resolvant. 



Past Participle. 
resolu, resous. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Present. je resous 

nous resolvons 

Imperfect. je resolvais 

nous resolvions 

Preterite Definite, je re sol us 

nous resolumes 

Future Absolute, je resoudrai 

nous resoudrons 



tu resous 
vous resolvez 

tu resolvais 
vous resolviez 

tu resolus 
vous resolutes 

tu resoudras 
vous resoudrez 



il resout 

ils resolvent. 

il resolvait 
ils resolvaient. 

il resolut 

ils resolurent. 

il resoudra 
ils resoudront. 



Present. 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 



je resoudrais tu resoudrais il resoudrait 

nous resoudrions vous resoudriez ils resoudraient. 



resolvons 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

resous 
resolvez 



qu'il resolve 
qu'ils resolvent. 



648 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present. que je resolve que tu resolves qu'il resolve 

que nous resol- que vous resol- qu'ils resolvent, 
vions viez 

Imperfect. que je resolusse que tu resolusses qu'il resolut 

que nous resolus- que vous resolus- qu'ils resolussent, 
sions siez 

The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir ', 
to have. 

This verb has two past participles. Resous is used when 
resoudre signifies to dissolve ; it has no feminine. 

1987. Conjugate in the same manner, but with etre, to be, 
Se resoudre, to resolve, to take a resolution. 

The two verbs, absoudre, to absolve, dissoudre, to dissolve, 
are conjugated like resoudre, but they have no preterite defi- 
nite, and no imperfect of the subjunctive ; their past participles 
are absous, dissous, feminine, absoute, dissoute ; they take 
avoir, to have, in their compound tenses. 



1988. Rire, to laugh, 





INFINITIVE MOOD. 




Present. 


Present Participle. 


Past Particip 


rire. 




riant. 


ri. 




INDICATIVE MOOD. 




Present. 


je ris _ 


tu ris 


il rit 




nous rions 


vous riez 


ils rient. 


Imperfect. 


je riais 
nous riions 


tu riais 
vous riiez 


il riait 
ils riaient. 


Preterite Definite 


• je ris ^ 
nous rimes 


tu ris 
vous rites 


il rit 

ils rirent. 


Future Absolute. 


je rirai 


tu riras 


il rira 




nous rirons 


vous rirez 


ils riront. 




CONDITIONAL MOOD. 




Present. 


je rirais 
nous ririons 


tu rirais 
vous ririez 


il rirait 
ils riraient. 




IMPERATIVE MOOD. 






rions 


ris 
riez 


qu'il rie 
qu'ils rient. 



ROMPRE, TO BREAK. 



649 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



Present. que je rie que tu ries qu'il rie. 

que nous riions que vous riiez qu'ils rient. 

Imperfect. que je risse que tu risses qu'il rit 

que nous rissions que vous rissiez qu'ils rissent. 

The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, 
to have. 

Conjugate in the same manner, 



Sourire, 
Se rire de. 



to smile, 
to laugh at. 



The compound tenses of se rire de are conjugated with etre, 
to be. 



1989. Rompre, to break. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Present. 


Present 


Participle. 


Past Participle. 


rompre. 


rompant. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 


rompu. 


Present. 


je romps 
nous rompons 


tu romps 
vous rompez 


il rompt 
ils rompent. 


Imperfect. 


je rompais 
nous rompions 


tu rompais 
vous rompiez 


il rompait 
ils rompaient. 


Preterite Definite 


. je rompis 
nous rompimes 


tu rompis 
vous rompites 


il rompit 

ils rompirent. 


Future Absolute. 


je romprai 
nous romprons 


tu rompras 
vous romprez 


il rompra 
ils rompront. 




CONDITIONAL MOOD. 




Present. 


je romprais 
nous romprions 


tu romprais 
vous rempriez 


il romprait 
ils rompraient. 




IMPERATIVE MOOD. 






rompons 


romps 
rompez 


qu'il rompe 
qu'ils rompent. 



Present. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

que je rompe que tu rompes qu'il rompe 
que nous rom- que vous rompiez qu'ils rompent. 
pions 

55 



650 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



Imperfect. que je rompisse que tu rompisses qu'il rorapit 

que nous rompis- que vous rompis- qu'ils rompissent. 
sions siez 

The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, 
to have. 

Conjugate in the same manner, 



Corrompre, 
Interrompre, 



to corrupt, 
to interrupt. 



1990. Suivre, to follow. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Present. 


Present Participle. 


Past Participle. 


suivre. 




suivant. 


suivi. 




INDICATIVE MOOD. 




Present. 


je suis 
nous suivons 


tu suis 
vous suivez 


il suit 

ils suivent. 


Imperfect. 


je suivais 
nous suivions 


tu suivais 
vous suiviez 


il suivait 
ils suivaient. 


Preterite Definite 


. je suivis 
nous suivimes 


tu suivis 
vous suivites 


il suivit 

ils suivirent. 


Future Absolute. 


je suivrai 
nous suivrons 


tu suivras 
vous suivrez 


il suivra 
ils suivront. 




CONDITIONAL MOOD. 




Present. 


je suivrais 
nous suivrions 


tu suivrais 
vous suivriez 


il suivrait 
ils suivraient. 




IMPERATIVE MOOD. 






suivons 


suis 
suivez 


qu'il suive 
qu'ils suivent. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present. que je suive que tu suives qu'il suive 

que nous suivions que vous suiviez qu'ils suivent. 

Imperfect. que je suivisse que tu suivisses qu'il suivit 

que nous suivis- que vous suivis- qu'ils suivissent. 
sions siez 

The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, 
to have. 



Conjugate in the same manner, 

Poursuivre, 
S'en suivre, 



to pursue, to prosecute, 
to follow, to result. 



TRAIRE, TO MILK, 



651 



This last verb, being reflective, is conjugated with etre. 
to be. 



1991. Traire, to milk. 





INFINITIVE MOOD. 




Present. 


Present Participle. 


Past participle. 


traire. 


trayant. 

INDICATIVE. 


trait. 


Present. 


je trais tu trais 
nous trayons vous trayez 


il trait 
ils traient. 


Imperfect. 


je trayais tu trayais 
nous trayions vous trayiez 


il trayait 
ils trayaient. 


Future Absolute. 


je trairai tu trairas 
nous trairons vous trairez 

CONDITIONAL MOOD. 


il traira 
ils trairont. 


Present. 


je trairais tu trairais 
nous trairions vous trairiez 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 


il trairait 
ils trairaient. 




trais 
trayons trayez 


qu'il traie 
qu'ils traient. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



Present. 



que je traie que tu traies qu'il traie 

que nous trayions que vous trayiez qu'ils traient. 



The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with 
avoir, to have. 

Conjugate in the same manner, 



Abstraire, 

Attraire, 

Distraire, 

Extraire, 

Rentraire, 

Retraire, 

Soustraire, 

Se soustraire, 



to abstract. 

to attract. (Not used.) 

to divert. 

to extract. 

to fine-draw. (Not used). 

to redeem an estate. (Not used.) 

to subtract, to hide, &c. 

to avoid, to escape, &c. 



Se soustraire, being reflective, is conjugated with etre, to be. 



652 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



1992. Vaincre 7 to conquer, 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Present. 


Present 


Participle. 


Past Participle. 


vaincre. 


vainquant. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 


vaincu. 


Present. 


je vaines 

nous vainquons 


tu vaines 
vous vainquez 


il vaine 

ils vainquent. 


Imperfect. 


je vainquais 
nous vainquions 


tu vainquais 
vous vainquiez 


il vainquait 
ils vainquaient. 


Preterite Definite 


je vainquis 
nous vainquimes 


ta vainquis 
vous vainqurtes 


il vain quit 

ils vainquirent. 


Future Absolute. 


je vainerai 
vous vaincrons 


lu vaincras 
vous vaincrez 


il vainera 
ils vaincroat. 




CONDITIONAL MOOD. 




Present. 


je vaincrais 
nous vaincrions 


tu vaincrais 
vous vainciiez 


il vainerait 
ils vaincraient> 




IMPERATIVE MOOD. 






vainquons 


vaines 
vainquez. 


qu'il vainque 
qu'ils vainquent 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present. que je vainque que tu vainques qu'il vainque 

que nous vain- que vous vain- qu'ils vainquent. 
quions quiez 

Imperfect. que je vainquisse que tu vainquisses qu'il vainquit 

que nous vain- que vous vain- qu'ils vainquis- 
quissions quissiez sent. 

The compound tenses of this verb take avoir, to have. 

Conjugate in the same manner> 

Convaincre^ to convince. 



1993. Vivre, to live. 



Present. 
vivre. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Participle. 
vivant. 



Past Participle. 
vecu. 



Present. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



je vis 
nous vivons 



tu vis 
vous vivez 



il vit 

ils viveM* 





VIVRE, 


TO LIVE. 




Imperfect. 


je vivais 
nous vivions 


tu vivais 
vous viviez 


il vivait 
ils vivaient. 


Preterite Definite, 


; je vecus 
nous vecumes 


tu vecus 
vous vecutes 


il vecut 

ils vecurent. 


Future Absolute. 


je vivrai 
nous vivrons 


tu vivras 
vous vivrez 


il vivra 
ils vivront. 




CONDITIONAL, MOOD. 




Present. 


je vivrais 


tu vivrais 


il vivrait 




nous vivrions 


vous vivriez 


ils vivraient. 




IMPERATIVE MOOD. 






vivons 


vis 
vivez 


qu'il vive 
qu'ils vivent. 



653 



Present. 
Imperfect. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

que je vive que tu vives qu'il vive 

que nous vivions que vous viviez qu'ils vivent. 

que je vecusse que tu vecusses qu'il vecut 

que nous vecus- que vous vecus- qu'ils vecussent. 
sions siez 



The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, 
to have. 

Conjugate in the same manner : 



Revivre, 
Survivre, 



to revive, 
to survive. 



1994. We have already spoken of the neuter verbs which 
are conjugated with the verb to be, and sometimes with both 
to have and to be, according to their signification. We will 
now, in order to facilitate the use of these verbs, give a list of 
them, showing those which take both auxiliaries, and those 
which only admit of to be. 

The verbs marked with the two letters a and e, take to have 
and to be : to have, when they express an action ; to be, when 
they express a situation. Those marked with an e alone are 
conjugated only with to be. 



Aborder, a, e, 


to land. 


Accroitre, «, e, 


to increase 


Accoucher, a, e, 


to bring forth. 


Aller, e, 


to go. 


Accourir, a, e, 


to run to. 


Apparaitre, a, e, 


to appear. 



55* 



654 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



Arriver, e, 

Avenir (not 

used), e, 
Cesser, a, e, 

Changer, a, e, 
Choir, e, 
Convenir, a, e, 

Croitre, «, e, 
Decamper, a, e, 

Deceder, e, 
Dechoir, a, e, 
Decroitre, a, e, 
Demeurer, a, e, 
Descendre, a, e, 

Devenir, e, 
Disconvenir, e, 

Disparaitre, a, e, 
Echapper, a, e, 
Echoir, e, 
Echouer, a, e, 

Eclore, e, 

Embellir, a, e, 
Empirer, a, e, 

Entrer, a, «, 

Expirer, a, e, 
Intervenir, e, 



to arrive, to hap- 
pen. 

to chance, to hap- 
pen. 

to cease, to leave 
off. 

to change. 

to fall. 

to agree, to suit, 
to become. 

to grow. 

to decamp, to run 
away. 

to die, to decease. 

to decay. 

to decrease. 

to remain, to stay. 

to come down, 
to descend. 

to become. 

to deny, to dis- 
own. 

to disappear. 

to escape. 

to fall due, &c. 

to run aground, 
to miscarry. 

to be hatched, to 
blossom. 

to embellish. 

to make worse, 
to grow worse. 

to enter, to go in, 
&c. 

to expire. 

to intervene. 



Mesavenir (not 

used), c, 
Monter, a, e, 

Mourir, e, 
Naitre, e, 
Partir, e, 
Parvenir, e, 

Passer, a, e, 
Perir, a, e, 
Provenir, e, 
Rajeunir, a, c, 
Redescendre,a,e 

Redevenir, «, 



Rentrer, a 7 e 7 

Repartir, e, 
Repasser, a, e, 
Ressortir, a, e } 
Rester, a, e, 
Resulter, a } e } 

Retomber, e, 
Retourner, «, 
Revenir, e, 
Sortir, a, e t 

Survenir, e, 

Vieillir, a, e, 
Tomber, e, 
Venir, e, 



to succeed ill. 

to ascend, to go 
up, &c. 

to die. 

to be born. 

to set off, &c. 

to attain, to 
reach. 

to pass. 

to perish. 

to proceed, &c. 

to grow young. 

to come down 
again, &c. 

to become again. 

to ascend again, 
&c. 

to reenter, to go 
in again. 

to set off again, &c. 

to pass again, &c. 

to go out again. 

to remain, to stay. 

to result, to fol- 
low. 

to fall again. 

to return, &c. 

to come again, &e. 

to go out, to take 
out. 

to befall, to hap- 
pen. 

to grow old. 

to fall. 

to* come. 



We refer, for the proper use of most of these verbs, to 
what we have already said of each of them. 



REGIMEN OF ADJECTIVES. 655 



1995. A LIST OF ADJECTIVES 

MOST GENERALLY USED, WITH THEIR REGIMEN PREPO- 
SITION, «, TO. 

Accessible, accessible, is said of places and persons, and 
is often used without a preposition ; as, 
This citadel is not accessible. Cette citadelle n'est pas accessible. 

But we say, most generally : 

Cette citadelle est inaccessible (inaccessible). 

With the preposition to, we say : 

He was accessible to all the Janissa- II etait accessible a touts les Janis- 
ries. saires. 

Accoutume, accustomed, is employed without a preposition ; 

as, 

He returns to his customary habits. II revient a ses manieres accoutu- 
me 1 es. 

And with the preposition to ; as, 

Fed in abundance, accustomed to Nourri dans l'abondance, au luxe 
luxury. accoutume" . 

Adherent, adherent, is used only with the preposition to ; as, 
A tree is adherent to the stump. Un arbre est adherent au tronc. 

Adonne, addicted, is followed by a, to ; as, 

Addicted to women, to study, to Adonne" aux femmes, a l'etude, au 
gaming. jeu. 

Agreable, agreeable, is used with a, to, en, in, and avec, 
with ; as, 

Offerings were agreeable to the Les offrandes etaient agredbles aux 

gods. dieux. 

This man is pleasing in society. Cet homme est agreable en societe. 

This man is pleasing with his Cet homme est agriable avec ses 

friends. amis. 

We say, equally well : 

This man is pleasing by or for his Cet homme est agreable far or pour 
qualities. ses qualites. 



656 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

AntSrieur. prior, is used with a, to, and de, of ; as, 

This epoch is prior to that you speak Cette epoque est 'anttrieure h, celle 

of. dont vous parlez. 

This event precedes your birthday Ce evenement est anterieur d'une 

one year. annee a votre naissance. 

Ardent, ardent, is used with d, to ; as, 
He is ardent to his work. II est ardent a son travail. 

Attend/, attentive, is used with a, to ; as, 
We are attentive to his words. Nous sommes attentifs a sa voix. 

Cher, dear, is followed by a, to ; as, 
This man is dear to his country. Cet homme est cher a sa patrie. 

Conforme, conformed, is used with a, to ; as, 

To live according to one's fortune. Vivre d'une maniere conforme a sa 

fortune. 

Contraire, contrary, is followed by a, to ; as, 
I am opposed to your wishes. Je suis contraire a vos desirs. 

Enclin, disposed, is followed by a, to ; as, 
He is disposed to blame everybody. II est enclin d blamer tout le monde. 

Exact, punctual, is followed by a, to, and dans, in ; as, 

You are not punctual to your duty. Vous n'6tes pas exact a vos devoirs. 
He is punctual in his payments. II est exact dans ses paiements. 

Favorable, favorable, is used without an object, and with the 
preposition a, to, and pour, for ; as, 

The mind of the king is in a favora- L'esprit du roi est dans une condi- 

ble condition. tion favorable. 

The minister is in favor of our Le ministre est favorable a nos vues. 

views. 

This place is proper to land. Ce lieu est favorable pour aborder. 

Funeste, fatal, is followed by «, to ; as, 

There is nothing more fatal to piety II n'y a rien de iplus funeste a la pi- 
than social life. ete que le commerce du monde. 

Importun, troublesome : 
You are troublesome to everybody. Vous etes importun a tout le monde. 

The Academy also gives these examples : 

tt • ui u u- .• S II est importun par ses questions. 

He is troublesome by his questions. J g ^ ^^ £ force £ questi()ns# 

Inaccessible, inaccessible, is followed by a, to, and is some- 
times used without an object (see Accessible) ; as, 



REGIMEN OF ADJECTIVES. 657 

To be inaccessible to temptations. Etre inaccessible aux tentations. 

We use it also with de, of ; as, 

This place is inaccessible by this Cette place est inaccessible de ce cote, 
side. 

Invisible, invisible : 

God is invisible to the eyes of man. Dieu est invisible aux yeux de 

l'homme. 
This star is invisible for us. Cet astre est invisible pour nous. 

Insensible, insensible : 
Insensible to life and death. Insensible a la vie, a la mort. 

Invulnerable, invulnerable : 

To be invulnerable to the attacks of Etre invulnerable aux traits de la 
slander. medisance. 

Nuisible, hurtful : 
His conduct is hurtful to his health. Sa conduite est nuisible a sa sante. 

Odieux, odious : 

This man is odious to me. Cet homme ra'est odieux (to me). 

It is odious for a man to plead against C'est une chose odieuse de plaider 
his conscience. contre sa conscience. 

Preferable, preferable : 
Virtue is preferable to vice. La vertu est preferable au vice. 

Propice, propitious : 

Retirement is propitious for inno- La retraite est propice a l'innocence. 

cence. 

We wait for a propitious opportu- Nous attendons une occasion pro- 

nity. pice. 

Rebelle, rebellious : 
To be rebellious to his king. Etre rebelle a son roi. 

Redoutable, redoubtable : 

St. Louis was formidable to vice for St. Louis etait redoutable au vice par 
his justice. sa justice. 

Semblable, similar : 

Kings are similar to God by their Les rois sont semblables a Dieu par 
clemency. leur clemence. 

Sensible. See Insensible. 

Sujet, subject : 

This man is subject to repentance. Cet homme est sujet au repentir. 



658 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



1996. ADJECTIVES FOLLOWED BY THE PREPOSITION 
de, OF. 



Yous etes amoureux de vous meme. 



Amoureux, enamoured : 
Your are enamoured of yourself. 

Capable, capable : 

Of what crime may this child be De quel crime cet enfant peut-il etre 
capable ? capable ? 

Complice, accomplice : 
You are an accomplice of his crimes. Yous etes complice de ses crimes. 

Content, contented : 

To be contented with little is the Etre content de peu, c'est le secret 
secret of happiness. du bonheur. 

Desireux, desirous : 
Napoleon was desirous of glory. 

Different, different : 
My nature is different from yours. 

Digne, worthy : 
You are worthy of my regard. 

Envieux, envious : 
I am envious of your fate. 

Esclave, slave : 
Man is the slave of his passions. 



Napoleon etait desireux de gloire. 
Mon caractere est different du votre. 
Yous etes digne de mon affection. 
Je suis envieux de votre sort. 

L'homme est Vesclave de ses passions. 

The Academy and usage authorize these expressions : 

To be a slave to one's master. Etre esclave aupres de son maitre. 

One is a slave in that office. On est esclave dans cet emploi. 

Exempt, exempt : 
You ! whose great names are ex- Oh ! vous dont les grands noms 



sont exempts de la mort. 
II est Jier de sa naissance. 



empt from death. 

Fier, proud. 

He is proud of his birth. 

Fou, crazy : 

A miser is crazy for his money. 
To be crazy enough to be tied. 

A man would be crazy not to see, II faut etre fou pour ne pas voir, 
&c. &c 



Un avare est fou de son argent. 
Etre fou a lier. 



REGIMEN OF ADJECTIVES- 



659 



Furieux, furious : 

He has become furious on account II est devenu furieux de cette re- 

of that resistance. sistance. 

Glorieux, glorious, proud : 

Who would not be proud to marry Qui ne serait glorieux de vous epou 

you? ser ? 

Honteux, ashamed. 

I am ashamed of loving one who Je suis honteux Maimer une per- 

does not love me. sonne qui ne m'aime pas. 

That is a shame for him. C'est honteux a lui or pour lui. 

Children are ashamed before their Les enfants sont honteux devant 

parents. leurs parents. 

You made him ashamed by your Vous l'avez rendu honteux par 

reproofs. vos reproches. 

What is shameful in his conduct Ce qu'il y a dehonteux dans sa con- 
is, &c. duite, &c. 

Incapable, incapable. (See Capable.) 

Indigne, unworthy. (See Digne.) 

Ivre, intoxicated : 

Intoxicated with wine, blood, glo- Ivre de vin, de sang, de gloire. 
ry. 

Las, tired : 

God is never tired of forgiving. Dieu n'est jamais las de pardonner. 

Mecontent, discontented, (see Content.) 

Plein, full : 

His head is full of nonsense. II a la tete pleine de sottises. 

Soigneux, careful : 

You are not careful of your repu- Vous n'etes pas soigneux de votre 



tation. 
Sur, sure, certain : 



reputation. 



I am certain of defeating my ene- Je suis sur de vaincre mes enne- 
mies. mis. 



Tributaire, tributary : 
Athens is tributary to my power. 

Vide, void : 
A discourse void of sense. 



Athenes est tributaire de mon pou- 
voir. 



Un discours vide de sens. 



660 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



1997. OF ADJECTIVES WHICH CHANGE THEIR OBJECT 
WHEN EMPLOYED BEFORE A NOUN OR A VERB, 
AND THEIR USE IN REGARD TO PERSONS OR THINGS. 

Absent, absent, is used without a regimen ; as, 

I fly from you when present, I Presente, je vous fuis, absente, je 
think of you when absent. vous trouve. 

It is used also with the preposition de, of, 1st, when speaking 

of places and things ; as, 

He his absent from court. II est absent de la cour. 

He is absent from the country. II est absent du pays. 

2d, when speaking of persons ; as, 

Far from you, I see you, I hear Absent de vous, je vous vois, je vous 

you. entends. 

I was far from you, anxious and des- J'etais absent de vous, inquiet et 

olate. desole. (Used in poetry.) 

We say also : 

He is absent with leave. II est absent par conge. 

Absolu, absolute. 

He is a man despotic in his will. C'est un homme absolu dans sa vo- 

lonte. 

Absurde, absurd, is most generally used without a regimen ; 
as, 

An absurd argument, an absurd ac- Un argument absurde, une proposi- 
tion, tion absurde. 

Think of what may be the most Imaginez ce que vous pourrez de 
monstrous, the most absurd, and plus monstreux, de plus absurde, 
you will find it in Shakspeare. et vous le trouverez dans Shaks- 

peare. 

It may be used with d, to ; as, 

This dogma is absurd to believe. Ce dogme est absurde a croire. 

We say also : 

He is absurd in his opinions. II est absurde dans ses opinions. 

Adore^ worshipped, referring to persons, requires de, of ; as, 

God requires to be worshipped by Dieu veut etre adore de ses crea- 
his creatures ; tures ; 

or it is used without a regimen ; as, 

Diana adored by all Asia. Diane adoree dans toute l'Asie. 



REGIMEN OF ADJECTIVES. 661 

Referring to things, adore requires no regimen ; as, 

Audacity triumphs and crime is L'audace triomphe et le crime est 
worshipped. adore. 

Adroit, skilful, requires «, to ; as, 

Skilful in directing the mind. Adroit a diriger l'e^prit. 

Skilful in fencing, shooting, &c. Adroit a faire des annes,a tirer,&e. 

Affable, affable, is employed alone, or with the prepositions 
d, to, envers, towards ; as, 

He is affable and without pride. II est affable et sans orgueil. 
Affable to or towards everybody. Affable a ou envtrs tout le monde. 

Alarmant, alarming, is used without a regimen, and with pour, 

for ; as, 

You are in an alarming state. ; Vous etes dans un etat alarmant. 

What we see every day is alarm- Ce qui se passe chaque jour est 

ing for the morality of the peo- alarmant pour la moralite du 

pie. people. 

Apre, greedy. Apre, meaning greedy, requires a, to ; as, 
Greedy of gain, of spoils. Apre au gain, a la curee. 

Assidu, assiduous, before nouns signifying persons, requires 
aupres, near; as, 

Assiduous to the prince. Assidu aupres du prince. 

Before other nouns and verbs, d, to ; as, 

Assiduous to study, to duty. Assidu a l'etude, a son devoir. 

Assiduous to prayers. Assidu a prier. 

Aucun, any, none, no, before nouns and pronouns, requires 
de, of ; as, 

None of you may complain of me. Aucun de vous ne peut se plaindre 

de moi. 

Fenelon employs this word instead of no, or not any, with 

de, of, before an adjective ; as, 

He had not in all his life a moment II n'a eii dans sa vie aucun moment 
of security. d'assure. 

This expression is blamed by some grammarians ; de, they say, 
is proper when the pronoun en (of it) is joined to aucun. Thus, 
in speaking of paintings or books, we say : 

There are none of them bound, II n'y en a aucun de relie, il n'y en 
none of them are framed ; a aucun d^encadrt; 

56 



662 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

but without en (of them) de must not come before the adjec- 
tive ; we must say, then : 

II n'a aucun livre relit. 

II n'a aucun de ces tableaux encadri. 

Audacieux, audacious, requires dans, in ; as, 
He is audacious in his attempts. II est audac.ie.ux dans ses tentatives. 

Jlveugle, blind, taken in its natural meaning, is used with- 
out a regimen ; as, 

Hazard, a blind and wild divinity, Le hasard, aveugle et farouche di- 
presides over the table of gam- vinite preside a la table des jou- 
blers. eurs. 

Taken figuratively, it is also used without a regimen; as, 

Nothing was more blind than pa- Rien n'etait plus aveugle que le pa- 
ganism, ganisme. 

Sometimes it is employed with sur, dans, and en ; as, 

We are blind to our faults. Nous sommes aveugle sur nos de- 

fauts. 
Hatred is blind in its own cause. La haine est aveugle dans sa pro- 

pre cause. 

En is used for dans in poetry. 
We say equally well : 

We must be blind not to see, &c. II faut etre aveugle pour nepas voir, &c. 

Avide, greedy, in its natural meanings, is employed without 

a preposition ; we do not say, 

Greedy of bread, of meat, Avide de pain, de viande, 

as we say, 

Greedy of other people's money, of Avide du bien d'autrui, de gloire, 
glory, &c. &c. 

when used figuratively. 

Celebre, celebrated, when used with a regimen, requires the 
prepositions par, by, pour, for, en, in : 

Celebrated by his virtues, by his Cetebre par ses vertus, par ses 

crimes. crimes. 

Celebrated for his virtues and piety. CeUbre pour sa vertu et sa piete. 

This part of the sea is celebrated Cette mer est cilibre en naufrages. 

for wrecks. 

Civil, polite, is followed by envers, towards, a regard : 

We must be civil to everybody. II faut etre civil envers tout le monde ? 

or a Vegard de tout le monde. 



REGIMEN OF ADJECTIVES. 663 

Commun, common, is used without a regimen : as, 

The air, the sun, the elements, are L'air, le soleil, les elements, sont 
in common ; communs ; 

and with a regimen, and the prepositions a, to, avec, with : 

The name of animal is common to Le nom d'animal est commun a 

man and beasts. l'homme et aux betes. 

Love has that in common with L'amour a cela de commun avec les 

scruples, that it sours by reflec- sorupules, qu'il s'aigrit par la 

tion. reflexion. 

This adjective does not always keep the same meaning, 
when used with and without a regimen ; des disgraces com- 
munes, are ordinary, unimportant disgraces ; but des disgraces 
communes a tous les hommes, are disgraces which any man may 
experience, and which may be extraordinary, or of great im- 
portance. 

We also say in French : 
All is in common between us. Tout est commun entre nous. 

Comparable, to be compared, requires the preposition a, to : 

Turenne is comparable to the great- Turenne est comparable aux plus 
est generals of antiquity. grand generaux de l'antiquite. 

This adjective requires also the preposition avec, with, 
when we speak of things altogether different, and then it is 
only used negatively. 

The mind is not to be compared to L'esprit n'est pas comparable avec la 
matter. matiere. 

Compatible, compatible, in the singular, requires the prep- 
osition avec, with : 

The observance of the rules of the L'accotnplissement des regies de 
gospel is not always compatible 1'evangile n'est pas toujours com- 
with the principles of government. patible avec les maximes des gou- 

vernements. 

In the plural it is used without a regimen : 

Love and reason are not compatible. L'amour et la raison ne sont pas 

compatibles. 

Competent, competent. 
You are not competent for that. Vous n'etes pas competent pour cela. 

Complaisant, agreeable. In prose this adjective has no 
regimen, according to some grammarians, but Racine and 



664 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Moliere employ it with a regimen in poetry. We think that 
it is used very properly with pour, for, envers, towards : 

To be agreeable for everybody. Etre complaisant pour tout le monde. 

To be agreeable towards everybody. Etre complaisant envers tout le 

monde. 

Confident, confident, represented by some as an adjective, 
is, in fact, a substantive. 

Connu, Inconnu, known, unknown, are used with the prep- 
ositions a, to, and de, of : 

Ennui is unknown to those who L'ennui est inconnu a ceux qui 

know how to employ their time. savent employer leur temps. 

The unknown ways of providence. Les voies inconnues de la providence. 

Consolant, consoling, is used with pour, for, dans, in, 
de, of : 

It is consoling to know that we II est consolant de savoir que l'on a 

have done oar duty. fait son devoir. 

The promises of providence are con- Les promesses de la providence sont 

soling for the afflicted. consolantes pour les malheureux. 

It is consoling in your misfortune, II est consolant dans vos malheurs, 

that you did not cause it by your que vous ne les ayez pas causes 

fault. par voire faute. 

Constant, constant, requires dans or en, in : 

He is constant in love. II est constant en amour. 

The Romans were constant in their Les Remains etaient constants dans 
principles. leurs principes. 

Coupable, culpable, is used in its natural meaning for per- 
sons, and in its figurative sense for things ; it is employed 
either without a regimen, or with the prepositions de, of, devant, 
before, envers, towards : 

Man was culpable before he was L'homme fut coupable avant d'etre 

born. ne. 

You are culpable for my misfortune. Vous etes coupable de mes malheurs. 

He is culpable for his crimes before II est coupable devant son Dieu des 

his God. crimes qu'il a commis. 

This young man is culpable towards Ce jeune homme est culpable envers 

his father. son pere. 

Cruel, cruel, is used with or without the prepositions a, to, 
and envers, towards : 

Valerius was cruel only to Chris- Valerien ne fut cruel qu'«wa? Chre- 

tians. tiens. 

You have been very cruel towards Vous avez ete bien cruel envers moi, 

me. 



REGIMEN OF ADJECTIVES. 665 

Curieux, curious, is used alone, and with en, in, before 

nouns : 

This lady is curious in clothes and Cette femrae est curieuse en habits 
jewels. et en bijoux. (Academy.) 

Dangereux, dangerous. With the verb to be, and followed 
by an infinitive, when used impersonally, this adjective governs 
the preposition de, of : 

It is dangerous to say to the people II est dangereux de dire aux peuples 
that the laws are not just. que les lois ne sont pas justes. 

When followed by an infinitive in other cases it governs 
a, to : 
This book is dangerous to read. Ce livre est dangereux a lire. 

Before nouns it governs pour, for, a, to: 

Worldly pleasures are dangerous to Les plaisirs du monde sont dange- 

young people. reux pour les jeunes gens. 

The power of the Jews was dan- Le pouvoir des Juifs etait dangereux 

gerous to the empire. a l'empire. 

Dedaigneux, disdainful. When a regimen is given to this 
word, de, of, is used before it : 

Why are you disdainful of instruc- Pourquoi etes vous didaigneux de 
tion ? vous instruire ? 

Difficile, difficult. When used with to be, impersonally, it 
governs de, of : 

It is always difficult to become wise. II est toujours difficile de devenir 

sage. 

When used with to be, not impersonally, then it governs 
a, to : 
You are easy to manage. Vous etes difficile a conduire. 

Docile, docile, when followed by a regimen, takes the prep- 
osition a, to : 

Docile to the lessons of the master. Docile aux lecons du maitre. 

This adjective is not used before nouns of persons ; thus we 

do not say, 

Children ought to be docile to their Lf s enfants doivent etre dociles aux 
fathers; but, to the lessons of their legons de leurs peres ; and not, a 
fathers ; leurs peres. 

Indocile, indocile. (See Docile.) 
56 * 



666 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Dur and facheux, hard, joined to the verb to be, govern de, 
of, when the verb is used impersonally ; as, 

It is hard to be- overcome by a fool. I] est dur on facheux de se voir sup- 

plante par un sot. 

When dur means cruel, inhuman, it governs a, to ; as, 

To be hard to one's self, to one's Etre dur a soi-meme, a ses debi- 
debtors. teurs. 

Effroyable, dreadful. In prose, this adjective has no regi- 
men ; as, 
He swears dreadfully. II fait des serments effroyables. 

But in poetry it is sometimes followed by a, to ; as, 

I see him as a monster dreadful to look at. 

Je le vois comme un monstre effroyable a mes yeux. 

Endurci, hardened, governs the preposition a, to, contre, 

against, or dans, in ; as, 

To be hardened to the blows of for- Etre endurci aux coups de la for- 
tune, to praises, against adversity, tune, aux louanges, contre l'ad- 
in crime, to crime. versite, dans le crime, au crime. 

Etranger, foreign, is followed by the prepositions en and 
dans, in, or a, to ; as, 

He does not know medicine. II est dtranger en medecine. 

He is a foreigner in this country. II est Stranger dans ce pays. 

He is unacquainted with intrigues. II est Stranger aux intrigues. 

Expert, expert, requires the preposition en or dans, in ; as, 

This man is expert in surgery. Cet homme is expert en chirurgie, or 

dans l'art de la chirurgie. 

Facile, easy, requires the preposition a, to, and, when used 
impersonally, de, of ; as, 

He is easily deceived. II est facile a tromper. 

It is easy to deceive you. II est facile de vous tromper. 

Fameux, famous. This adjective governs the preposition 
par, by, or dans or en, in (this last requires the plural) ; as, 

Napoleon, celebrated by his wars. Napoleon, fameux par ses guerres. 

Louis the Fourteenth was famous in Louis XIV. etait fameux dans la 

peace and in war. va,ix,dans la guerre. 

This part of the sea so famous by Cette mer si fameuse en naufrages. 
the wrecks which it has wit- 
nessed. 

Fecond, fertile. This adjective is most generally used 



REGIMEN OF ADJECTIVES. 



667 



without a regimen, but when it takes one, it is with the prepo- 
sition en, in ; as, 

A fertile imagination, a copious sub- Une imagination ftconde, un sujet 

ject. fdcond. 

Our age is prolific in great men. Notre siecle est ficond en grands 

hommes. 

It is most generally applied to things, but we may say, without 

impropriety : 

Un ecrivain ftcond, un auteur f6- 
cond. 



A fertile writer, a fertile author. 



Fertile, fertile, governs the preposition en, in, and is often 

used without any regimen ; as, 

You have a mind fertile in discove- Votre esprit est fertile en inventions. 

ries. 
This land appears to be fertile. Cette terre parait/er^7e. 

Fidele, faithful, requires the preposition a, to, or en or 
dans, in ; as, 



Faithful to God and to the king. 
Faithful in his promises. 



Fiddle a Dieu et au roi. 
Fiddle en ses promesses, or dans ses 
promesses. 

Formidable, formidable, requires the preposition a, to, par, 
by, or pour, for ; as, 

The power of Xerxes was formida- Le pouvoir de Xerces 6ta.it formida- 
ble to Greece. ble a la Grece. 

He has rendered himself formidable II s'est rendu formidable par la ra- 

by the rapidity of his conquests. pidite de ses conquetes. 

Napoleon was too formidable for Napoleon etait trop formidable pour 

Austria. l'Autriche. 

Fort, skilful, strengthened. When meaning skilful, it gov- 
erns the preposition sur, upon, or a, at ; as, 

Expert in history, in the laws of Fort sur Thistoire, sur le droit ca- 

the church. non. 

Expert at all games. Fort a tout les jeux. 

But, to express the cause which produces strength, the prep- 
osition de, of, is used ; as, 

This child is strong from the good Cet enfant est fort du bon lait qu'il 

milk which he sucked. a suce. 

He is strong with such a support. II est fort d\\n tel appui. 

Furieux, mad with anger, is most generally used without a 
regimen, but sometimes with de, of; as, 

He is mad with love and passion. II estfurieux d'amour et de colere. 



663 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Gros, taken figuratively for full, is used very well with 

de, of; as, 

The present is full of the future. Le present est gros de l'avenir. 

The eyes full of tears. Les yeux gros de larmes. 

Habile, skilful, adept, is used without a regimen, and also 
with a, to, or dans or en, in ; as, 

Skilful in the art of drawing. Habile dans l'art du dessin. 

Skilful in using the pencil. Habile a manier le crayon. 

Skilful in mathematics. Habile en mathematiques. 

Heureux, happy, lucky, is used without a regimen, and also 

with a, to, en or dans, in, or de, of, before nouns, and de, of, 

before verbs ; as, 

Happy in war. Heureux a la guerre. 

Lucky at gaming. Heureux au jeu. 

Happy in other people's happiness. Heureux du bonheur des autres. 

Happy to be in an honest state of Heureux detre dans un honnete etat 

indigence. d'indigence. 

Happy in love. Heureux en amour. 

Idolatre, idolatrous, doting, is used without a regimen, and, 

in figurative style, takes the preposition de, of; as, 

The Indians are an idolatrous peop e. Les Indienssont une peuple idolatre. 
To be doting upon one's child. Etre idolatre de son enfant. 

Ignorant, ignorant, is used without a regimen, and also takes 

the regimen en, in, sur, upon, or de, of; as, 

He is very ignorant in geography. II est tres ignorant en geographic 
You are ignorant of those matters. Yous etes ignorant sur ces matieres. 
Man is ignorant of his own wants. L'homme est ignorant de ses pro- 

pres besoins. 

The Academy says, that ignorant is used only in speaking of 

persons, but many good authors have employed it in speaking of 

things ; as, 

Their ignorant and unjust decisions. Leurs ignorantes et injustes decis- 
ions. 

Impenetrable, impenetrable, is most generally used without a 

regimen, but when it has one, it takes the preposition a, to, or 

dans, in ; 

This armour is shot-proof. Cette armure est impenetrable aux 

coups de mousquet. 
This grove is impenetrable to the Ce bosquet est impenetrable aux ra- 

rays of the sun. yons du soleil. 

This man is impenetrable in his Cet homme est impenetrable dans ses 

views. desseins. 



REGIMEN OF ADJECTIVES. 669 

Inabordable, inaccessible. (See Inconcevuble.) 

Incertain, uncertain, is followed by de, of, before the pro- 
noun ce, and sometimes before verbs, but is most generally used 
without a regimen ; as, 

I am uncertain of what will happen. Je suis incertain de ce que arrivera. 

Napoleon never doubted he should Napoleon ne fut jamais incertain de 

reign. regner. 

Your mind is vacillating. Votre esprit est incertain. 

Incommode, troublesome, is used without a regimen, and also 
with a, to ; as, 

This man is a troublesome neigh- Cet homrae est un voisin incommode. 

hour. 

This man is troublesome to his Cet homme est incommode a ses voi- 

neighbours. sins. 

Incompatible, inconciliable, incompatible, are never used with- 
out a regimen in the singular, on account of their expressing a 
relation ; as, 

Piety is not incompatible with La piete n'est pas incompatible avec 

arms. les armes. 

These abuses were irreconcilable Ces abus etaient inconciliahhs avec 

with the constitution. la constitution. 

They are things which are incom- Ce sont des choses incompatibles, 

patible, &c. in conciliates, &c. 

lnconcevablc, inabordable, inaccessible, inconceivable, un- 
approachable, inaccessible, are generally used without a re- 
gimen, but sometimes take the preposition a, to ; as, 

The power of God is inconceivable. Le pouvoir de Dieu est inconceiv- 
able. 
Since he is in office, he is inac- Depuis qu'il est en place il est in- 

cessible. abordable, inaccessible. 

Study has charms inconceivable for L'etude a des cb armes inconcevables 
those who do not like it. a or four ceux que ne l'aiment 

pas. 
The coast of Barbary is inaccessi- La cote de Barbarie est inaborda- 

ble to Christians. ble aux Chretiens. 

My heart is inaccessible to flattery. Mon cceur est inaccessible a la fla- 

tterie. 

Inconnu, unknown, connu, known, are used without an ob- 
ject, and also with the prepositions a, to, de, of, dans, in ; as, 

Ennui is unknown to those who L'ennui est inconnu a ceux qui 
love occupation. aiment a s'occupsr. 

The unknown ways of Providence. Les voies inconnues de la Provi- 
dence. 

This man is much known in the Cet homme est tres connu dans le 
world. monde. 



670 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Inconsolable, inconsolable, is used without a regimen, and 
also with de, of ; as, 

The mother of this child is incon- La mere de cet enfant est inconsol- 

solable. able 

The world is inconsolable for his Le monde est inconsolable de sa 

loss. perte. 

Incurable, incurable, is used without a regimen ; as, 

Love is rarely an incurable dis- L'amour est rarement un mal in- 
ease. curable. 

Indulgent, indulgent, is used without a regimen, or with the 

preposition pour, for, envers, towards ; as, 

You are too indulgent to your chil- Vous etes trop indulgent, pour or 
dren. envers vos enfants. 

Inebranlable, immovable, is used without a regimen, and 
also with dans, in, a, to, contre, against ; as, 

I am immovable in my disposi- Je suis inebranlable dans mes dis- 

tions. positions. 

This rock is immoveable to the im- Ce rocher est inebranlable a l'im- 

petuosity of the waves. petuosite or contre l'impetuosite 

des vagues. 

Napoleon's character was immov- Le caractere de Napoleon etait tri- 
able, bbranlable. 

Inexorable, inexorable, is used without a regimen, and also 

with a, to ; as, 

St. Louis was inexorable to the St. Louis fut inexorable au repen- 

repentance of the blasphemer. tir du blasphemateur. 

Your nature is inexorable. Vous avez un caractere inexorable. 

Inexplicable, inexplicable, is used both with persons and 
things, without a regimen, and also with the preposition a, to ; 

as, 

They are an enigma inexplicable lis sont une enigme inexplicable a 

to themselves. eux memes. 

It is an event which cannot be ex- C'est un evenement inexplicable. 

plained. 

Women cannot be understood. Les femmes sont inexplicables. 

Infatigable, indefatigable, is used without a regimen, and 

also with a, to, before verbs and nouns ; as, 

This horse is indefatigable. C'est un cheval infatigable. 

He is indefatigable in the chase. II est infatigable a la chasse. 
To be indefatigable in teaching. Etre infatigable a instruire. 

Inferieur, inferior, is used without a regimen, and also with 
«, to, with persons, and en, in, with things : 



REGIMEN OF ADJECTIVES. 671 

These goods are of an inferior Ces marchandises sont d'une qual- 

quality. ite infb'ieure. 

Napoleon was inferior to Alexan- Napoleon etait inferieur a Alexan- 
der, dre. 

The enemy were inferior in num- Les ennemis etaient inferieurs en 

ber. nombre. 

Infidele, unfaithful. (See Fidele.) 

Infini, infinite, is used without a regimen, and also takes the 
preposition a, to, when meaning extreme, and de, of, when 
meaning considerable ; as, 

This work cost me a great deal of Ce travail m'a coute un temps in- 
time, ftni. 

We had a great deal of trouble to Nous eumes une peine infinie a les 

overtake them. rejoindre. 

There was an immense number of II y eut un nombre inji.ni de per- 

people at the races. sonnes aux courses. 

Ingenieux, ingenious, is used without a regimen, and also 
with the prepositions pour, for, and a, to ; as, 

You have an ingenious mind. Vou avez l'esprit ingenieux. 

Delicate minds are ingenious for Les esprits delicats sont ing6- 

the happiness of others. nieux pour le bonheur d'autrui. 

Vice knows how to disguise itself. Le vice est ingenieux a se deguiser. 

Ingrat, ungrateful, is used without a regimen, and also with 
a, to, referring to things, and envers, towards, referring to per- 
sons ; as, 

God punishes ungrateful children. Dieu punit les enfants ingrats. 

This land does not pay for cultiva- Cette terre est ingrate a la culture, 
tion. 

A child must never be ungrateful Un enfant ne doit jaimas etre in- 
to his parents. grat envers ses parents. 

lnjurieux, injurious, is used without a regimen, and also with 
a, to, pour, for ; as, 

You use insulting language. Vous vous servez de propos inju- 

rieux. 

This memorial is insulting to the Ce memoire est injurieux aux ma- 
magistrates, gistrats. 

His conduct is injurious to him, his Sa conduite est injurieuse pour lui, 
friends, and his house. pour ses amis, et pour sa maison. 

Inquiet, unquiet, is used without a regimen, and also with 
51*?*, upon, and de, of; as, 

Your wife has an unquiet nature. Votre femme est d'un caractere in- 
quiet. 

With de, of, unquiet expresses the cause of inquietude; as, 



672 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

I am unquiet about this sad event. Je suis inquiet de ce triste evene- 

ment. 

With sur, upon, it expresses the object of inquietude ; as, 

I am anxious about his fate. Je suis inquiet sur son sort. 

This adjective must not be mistaken for the past participle 
inquiete ; inquiet expresses only a state of the soul, without 
reference to the cause which produced it ; while inquiete in- 
cludes in the idea of that situation, the cause also by which it 
was produced ; thus inquiete must always be followed by a 
regimen. We cannot say, etre inquiete, to. be troubled, with 
expressing by what or by whom. 

Insatiable, insatiable, is used without a regimen, but also with 
de, of ; as, 

You have an appetite which cannot Vous avez un appetit insatiable. 

be satisfied. 

To be insatiable of glory, wealth, Etre insatiable de gloire, de ri- 

praises, &c. chesses, de louanges, &c. 

Inseparable, inseparable ; when referring to persons, this 
adjective is used without a regimen ; as, 
These two friends are inseparable. Ces deux amis sont inseparables. 

But when relating to things, it may either have a regimen or 
not, and the preposition c?e, of, is used ; as, 

Remorse is inseparable from crime. Le remords est inseparable du 

crime. 

Heat and fire are inseparable. Le chaleur et le feu sont insepara- 

bles. 

Insolent, insolent, is used without a regimen, and also with 

dans, en, in, and avec, with ; as, 

You are insolent in prosperity. Vous etes insolent dans la prospe- 

rity. 
He is insolent with his masters. II est insolent avec ses maitres. 

Your language is insolent. Vous avez la parole insolente. 

This servant is an insolent fellow. Ce domestique est insolent. 

Invisible, invisible, is used without a regimen, or with a, to, 
and pour, for ; as, 

There are stars invisible to the II y a des etoiles invisibles ti l'ceil 

eye. nu. 

The inhabitants of the moon are Les habitants de la lune sont invi- 

invisible to us. sibles pour nous. 

He is an invisible man. Cet un homme invisible. 



REGIMEN OF ADJECTIVES. 673 

Invincible, invincible, is used without a regimen, and with 

a, to, and en, in. 

Napoleon was not invincible for Napoleon n'a pas toujours ete in- 

ever. vincible. 

To be invincible in war. Etre invincible a la guerre. 

To be invincible in love. Etre invincible en amour. 

Invulnerable, invulnerable, is used without a regimen, and 
also with a, to : 

Achilles was not invulnerable. Achille n'etait pas invulnerable. 

He is invulnerable to slander. II est invulnerable aux traits de la 

calomnie. 

Jaloux, jealous, is used without a regimen, and also with 
de, of, en, in, sur, on : 

Love is a jealous god. L'amour est un dieu jaloux. 

You are jealous of your wife. Vous etes jaloux de votre femme. 

This woman is jealous in love mat- Cette femme est jalouse en amour. 

ters. 

He was jealous of keeping victory II etait jaloux de garder la victoire 

on his side. de son cote. 

Men are as jealous on the score of Les hommes sont aussi jaloux sur 

wit as women are on the score of le chapitre de l'esprit que les 

beauty. femmes sur celui de la beaute. 

Jaloux, used as a noun, has no regimen. 

We do not say, 
Those who are jealous of his glory, Les jaloux de sa gloire ; 
but we say, 
He is jealous. C'est un jaloux. 

Lent, slow, is used without a regimen, and takes dans, in, 
with nouns, and d, to, with verbs : 

This man is slow by nature. Cet homme est lent naturellement. 

You are slow in what you do. Vous etes lent dans ce que vous 

faites. 
The king is slow in punishing. Le roi est lent a punir. 

Libre, free, is used without a regimen, and with de, of,. 
dans, in, avec, with : 

Man is born free. L'homme est ne litre. 

I am free from cares and sorrows. Je suis libre de soins et de chagrins. 

You seem very free in this house. Vous semblez bien libre dans cette 

maison. 
This man is very free with ladies. Cet homme est tres libre avec les 

femmes. 
57 



674 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Licencieux, licentious, is used without a regimen, and also 
with en, in : 

He is a licentious man. C'est un homme licencieux. 

You are licentious in your expres- Vou etes licencieux en paroles. 

sions. 

JVJenager, sparing, is always used without a regimen : as, 

A sparing man, woman. Un homme mcnager, une femme 

me'nag&re. 

It is often used as a noun : as, 

She understands how to keep house. C'est une bonne menaghre. 

Misiricordieux, merciful, is used without a regimen, when 
applied to God, providence, and similar words : as, 

Merciful God, Saviour, &c. Dieu, Sauveur, misdricordieux. 

But we do not say, 

Un homme misericordieux. une 
femme misiricordieuse. 

We must say, 

A man merciful to others. Un homme misericordieux envers 

les autres. 

Mourant, dying, is used without a regimen, and also with 

de, of : 

He looks like a dying man. II a l'air mourant. 

She is dying for love, for grief. Elle est mourante tf'amour, de cha- 

grin. 

Necessaire, necessary, is used without a regimen, and also 
with a, to, en, in, pour, for : 

Hunger is a necessary evil. La faim est un mal nicessaire. 

Laws are necessary for society. Les loissont necessaires a, la societe. 

This drug is necessary in medicine. Cette drogue est nicessaire en me- 

decine. 
Faith is necessary for our salvation. La foi est nicessaire pour notre 

salut. 

Officieux, officious, is used without a regimen, and also with 

envers, towards : 

He is an officious man. C'est un homme officieux. 

He is officious towards those who II est officieux envers ceux qui sont 
are below him. au dessous de lui. 

Orgueilleux, proud, is used without a regimen, and some- 
times with de, of, envers, towards : 



REGIMEN OF ADJECTIVES. 675 

You have nothing to be proud of. Vous n'avez rien dont vous deviez 

etre orgueilleux. 
Rome was proud of the glory of her Rome etait orgneilleuse de la gloire 

consuls. de ses consuls. 

He is proud with his friends. II est orgueilleux avec or envers ses 

amis. 

Paresseux, lazy, is used without a regimen ; also with a, to, 
when the action is the end to be gained, and with de, of, when 
meaning a determination of the mind : as, 

You are a lazy fellow. Vous etes un garcon paresseux. 

He is lazy in fulfilling his duty. II est paresseux a remplir ses de- 

voirs. 

I know you are lazy to write. Je sais que vous etes paresseux 

cTecrire. 

Penible, painful, is used without a regimen ; but when pre- 
ceded by to be, impersonally, it takes de, of, and a, to, when 
the verb to be is not impersonal : 

Have you heard of this painful Avez-vous entendu parler de ce 

event ? ptnible evenement ? 

This is painful to see, to hear, to C'est pfnible a. voir, a entendre, a 

follow. suivre. 

It is painful to see, to follow, this II est penible de voir, de suivre, cet 

man. homme. 

Plausible, plausible. This adjective is always used without 
a regimen. 

Precieux, precious, is used without a regimen, and also with 
a, to, before nouns and verbs : 

This stone is precious. Cette pierre est prrcieuse. 

He is precious to his family and his II est pricieux a sa famille, a ses 

friends. amis. 

This book is precious to keep. Ce livre est prtcieux a conserver. 

Preliminaire, preliminary, is used without a regimen. 
Prodigue, prodigal, is used without a regimen, and also with 
en, in, de, of, envers, towards: 

Prodigal people act as if they had Les personnes prodigues se condui- 

but a little time to live. sent comme si elles n'avaient que 

peu de temps a vivre. 

Ministers are very prodigal in prom- Les ministres sont tres prodigues en 

ises. promesses. 

Those who love praise are prodigal Ceux qui aiment la louange sont 

of their money. prodigues de leur argent. 

Providence is prodigal of its gifts La providence est prodigue de ses 

towards man. dons envers l'homme. 

Prompt, prompt, is used without a regimen ; but, before an 
infinitive, it takes a, to, and before a noun, dans, in : 



676 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

I love a man prompt and skilful. J'aime un homme prompt et adroit. 

Your mind is prompt to take of- Votre esprit est prompt a s'offenser. 

fence. 
Youth is prompt to blaze* La jeunesse est promptt a s'enflam- 

mer. 
He is prompt in all he does. II est prompt dans tout ce qu'il fait. 

Reconnaissent, grateful, is used without a regimen, and also 
with envers, towards, referring to persons, and de, of, referring 
to things : 

The nature of this child is grateful. Le caractere de cet enfant est re- 

connaissant. 
Children never can be too grateful Les enfants ne peuvent jamais etre 
towards their parents. trop reconnaissants envers leurs 

parents. 
I am grateful for your kindness. Je suis reconnaissant de vos bontes. 

Redevable, indebted. This adjective is never used without 
a regimen, because it expresses a relation. It takes the prep- 
osition a, to, before a noun signifying a person, or thing per- 
sonified, and de, of, before a noun signifying a thing : 

Men thought they were indebted to Les hommes croyaient qu'ils etaient 
their gods for the serenity of ihe redevables a leurs dieux de la se- 
air, for a happy navigation, &c. renite de 1'air, d'une heureuse 

navigation, &c. 

Redoutable, redoubtable, is used without a regimen, and also 

with a, to, dans, in, or par, by ; as, 

You are a redoubtable man. Vous etes un homme redoutable. 

He is redoubtable to his enemies. II est redoutable a ses ennemis. 
Napoleon was redoubtable in war. Napoleon etait redoutable dans la 

guerre. 
He is redoubtable by his hypocrisy. II est redoutable par son hypocrisie. 

Respectable, respectable, is used without a regimen, and also 
with par, by, dans, in, or a, to : 

This woman appears respectable. Cette femme a l'air respectable. 

This old man is respectable by his Ce vieillard est respectable par son 

age and virtues. , age, et par ses vertus. 

Louis Philippe is respectable in his Louis Philippe est respectable dans sa 

private life. vie privee. 

He has made himself respectable to II s'est rendu respectable a ses enne- 

his enemies. mis. 

Responsable, responsible, is used without a regimen, and also 
with de, of, a, to, envers, towards, or pour, for ; as, 

He is a responsible man. C'est un homme responsable. 

You are responsible to God for your Vous etes responsable a, or envers, 
bad conduct. Dieu, de or pour votre mauvaise 

conduite. 



REGIMEN OF ADJECTIVES. 677 



A father is responsible (account- Un pere est responsable pour ses en- 
able) for his children and wife. fants et pour sa femme. 

Riche, rich, is used without a regimen, and also with en, in, 
or de, of ; as, 

He is a rich man, and well thought C'est un homme riche et estime. 

of. 

This country is rich in wheat, cat- Ce pays est riche en ble, en besti- 

tle, &c. aux, &c. 

A farmer is rich with his forests, Un fermier est riche de ses forets,cfe 

lands, prairies, &c. ses terres, de ses prairies, &c. 

La Bruyere has used, with this adjective, the prepositions par, 
by, and de, of, in the same sentence : 

Our ancestors were richer by their Nos ancetres etaient plus riches par 

economy and their modesty than leur economie et par leur modes- 

we are by our revenues and do- tie que nous ne le sommes de nos 

mains. revenus et de nos domaines. 

Severe, severe, is used without a regimen, and also with 
pour, for, envers, towards, or a Vegard ; as, 

This man is honest and severe. Cet homme est honnete et severe. 

A magistrate ought to be severe Un magistrat doit etre severe contre 
against the disturbers of the pub- les perturbateurs de la paix pub- 
lic peace. lique. 
This man is severe to his children. Cet homme est sivere pour ses en- 

fants, or a. regard de sesenfants, 
or envers ses en fants. 

Sourd, deaf, is used without a preposition, and also with a, 
to ; but, in this latter case, only when applied to things which 
may be heard ; as, 

This man is blind and deaf. Cet homme est aveugle et sourd. 

You are deaf to cries, to pity, to Vous etes sourd aux cris, a la pitie, 
threats. aux menaces. 

Not deaf to somebody, but to the voice of somebody ; be- 
cause a person cannot be heard but through the voice. 

Supportable, tolerable, insupportable, intolerable, are used 
without a regimen, and also with a, to ; as, 

Egotism is intolerable. L'ego'isme est insupportable, or 

n'est pas supportable. 

We ought to employ our riches to Nous devons employer nos riches- 
render life tolerable to those who ses a rendre la vie supportable a 
are destitute. ceux qui sont pauvres. 

Victorieux, victorious, is used without a regimen, or with 
de, of ; with sur, upon, it is no longer used : 

57* 



678 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

America came out of the fight vie- L'Amerique sortit victorieuse de la 

torious. lutte. 

Victorious over hundreds of proud Victorieux de cent peuples altiers. 

people. 

Vifi quick, is used without a regimen, and takes also the 

prepositions dans, in, or comme, as, before nouns, and d, to, 

before verbs ; as, 

He is of a quick and violent temper. Son caractere est vifet violent. 

He is quick in what he does. II est vif dans ce qu'il fait. 

He is as quick as gunpowder. II est vifcomme la poudre. 

He is quick in perceiving other peo- II est vif a sentir les fautes d'au- 
ple's faults. trui. 

Voisin, neighbour, is used without a regimen, and also with 

c?e, of ; as, 

Our houses are close to each other. Nos habitations sont voisines. 
This land is too close to the road. Ces terres sont trop voisines de la 

route. 



1998. ILLUSTRATIONS OF VERBS, 

WHICH GOVERN, WITHOUT A PREPOSITION, THE INFIN- 
ITIVE THAT FOLLOWS THEM. 

Aimer mieux, to like better. 

Quoiqu'a peine a mes maux je puisse resister, 
Vaime mieux les souffrir que de les meriter. 

(Corneille.) 

II n'y a rien que les hommns aiment mieux conserver et qu'ils menagent 
moins que leur propre vie. (La Bruytre.) 

Aller, to go. 

Aller, before an infinitive, means, to put one's self in motion 
to do a thing, or is applied to things which may happen. 

Venez, mes amis, allons nous mettre a table. 

Je ne condamne plus un courraux legitime, 

Et Ton vous va, seigneur, livrer votre victime. (Racine.) 

Compter, to intend. 
II compte partir demain avec sa famille. (Academy.) 



REGIMEN OP VERBS. 679 

Croire, to believe. 

H a cru bien /aire. 

Je croyois ne pouvoir, prendre pour regie, que l'ecriture et sa tradition. 

(Pascal. ) 
Elle croyait servir l'etat, elle croyait assurer au roi des serviteurs, en con- 
servant aDieu des fideles. (Bossuet.) 

Daigner, to deign. 

Calliope, jamais, ne daigna leur parler. 

(Boileau.) 

Devoir, to owe. 

Si la bonne foi etait exilee de la terre elle devrait se retrouver dans le cour 

des rois. 
TJn seul jour perdu devrait nous dormer des regrets. 

Entendre, to hear. 

Ventends deja partout les charrettes courir, 
Les macrons travailler, les boutiques s'owvnr. 

(Boileau.) 

The verb entendre governs the infinitive which follows it, 
only in the active form : it would be wrong, then, to say : 

Us furent entendus prononcer les saints noms de Jesus et Marie. 

We must say : 

On les entendit prononcer, &c. 

Esperer, to hope. 

This verb, employed in any other tense than the present of 
the infinitive, requires no preposition before the following in- 
finitive : as, 

J'espdrais y rigner sans effroi ; 
Moines, abbes, prieurs, tout s'arme contre moi. 

(Boileau.) 

II esplre revivre en sa posterite. (Racine.) 

But if the verb esperer is itself in the infinitive, the next 
verb must be preceded by the preposition de, of : 
Peut on esperer de vous revoir aujourd'hui. (Academy.) 

Faire, to make, to cause, to do. 

Calchas 
Fera taire nos pleurs, /era parler les dieux. 

(Racine.) 



680 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Falloir, to be necessary. 

This verb is always used impersonally, and never takes a 
preposition before the infinitive following : 
Ilfaut Hre utile aux hommes pour etre grand a leurs yeux. (Massillon.) 

Laisser, to permit. 

This verb, when used for permetire, to permit, takes no 

preposition : 

Ou laissez raoi perir, ou laissez moi rdgner. 

{Corneille.) 

Oser, to dare. 

II est beau d'oser s'exposer a Findignation du prince plutot que de raan- 
quer a ses devoirs. (Massillon.) 

Penser, to believe. 

Un discours trop sincere, aisement nous outrage, 
Chacun dans ce miroir, pense voir son image. 

(Balkan.) 

(Meaning, espdrer, to hope, se flatter, to flatter one's self.) 

II pense voir en pleurs dissiper cet orage. 

(.Racine.) 

Pouvoir, to be able. 

Et qui peut immoler sa haine a sa patrie 
Lui pourrait bien aussi sacrifitr sa vie. 

(Racine.) 

Pretendre, to intend. 

Je pritends vous trailer comme mon propre fils. (Id.) 

J. B. Rousseau gives to this verb the preposition de, of : 

C'est par une humble foi, c'est par un amour tendre, 
Que Thomme peat pretendre 
D'honorer ses autels. 

(/. B. Rousseau.) 

But this is not correct, and the Academy does not approve 
of it. 

Savoir, to have the skill, power, cunning, ability, and 
the means of doing a thing. 

II n'appartient qu'aux heros et aux genies sublimes de savoir etre simples 
et humains. 



REGIMEN OF VERBS. 681 

Sembler, to seem. 
Plus on s'eleve, plus la felicite semble s'eloigner de nous. (Id.) 

Sentir, to feel, to be touched. 

La piete charmee, 
Sent renaiire la joie en son ame calmee. 

(Boileau.) 

SHmaginer, to figure to one's self. 
II sHmagine itre un grand homme. (Academy.) 

Souhaiter, to wish. 
Je souhaiterais pouvoir vous obliger. (Id.) 

Valoir mieux, to be better. 
II y a beaucoup d'occasions ou il vaut mieux se taire queparler. (Id.) 

Venir, to come. 
Quand viendrez-\ous nous voir? (Id.) 

Voir, to see. 
Nous avons vu le regne le plus glorieux./Enir par des revers. (Massillon.) 

Vouloir, to be willing. 

FowZez-vous du public miriter les amours? 
Sans cesse en ecrivant, variez vos discours. 

(Boileau.) 



1999. OF VERBS GOVERNING THE INFINITIVE AFTER 
THEM WITH THE PREPOSITION «, tO. 

S'Abaisser, to demean. 

Et fait comme je suis, au siecle d'aujourd'hui, 
Qui voudra s'abaisser a me servir d'appui ? 

(Boileau.) 

Aboutir, to end. 

Cette vie si penible, si sordide, aboutit a gpossir par de miserables 
epargnes un bien injuste. (Massillon.) 



682 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

#' 'Abuser, to be mistaken. 

This verb, when used impersonally, has no preposition after 
it. But Pascal has said : 

II n'est pas possible de s'a&wser a prendre un homme pour un ressussite. 

(Pascal.) 

S'Accorder, to agree, 
lis s'accordent tous a demander l'expulsion de Mazarin. ( Voltaire.) 

S'Acharner, to be enraged, 
lis sacharnent fort a diffamer cette harangue. (La Bruyere.) 

S'Aguerrir, to inure one's self. 

II s'est aguerri a mepriser tout ce que les sens offrent de plus cher. 

(Massillon.) 

Aider, to help. 

Aidez lui (a lui) a soulever son fardeau. (Academy.) 

Aimer, to love, to take pleasure. 

L'homme riaime point a s'occuper de son neant et de sa bassesse. 

(Massillon.) 

Animer, to induce, to excite. 

Votre rigueur les condamne a. eherir 
Ceux que vous animez a les faire perir. 

(Corneille.) 

We would not advise to imitate this example, which was 
very good in the time of Corneille, but is out of use now. 

S'Animer, to get excited. 
H s'anime a parler. 
H s'anime en parlant is more generally used now. 

S^Appliquer, to apply one's self. 

II s applique a discerner la cause du juste d'avec celle du pecheur. 

(Flechier.) 

Apprendre, to learn. 

Qu'en vous aimant, vos fils apprennent a vous craindre. 

Appreter, to prepare, 
lis apprUent a manger. 



REGIMEN OF VERBS. 683 

WAppreter, to prepare one's self. 

A suivre ce grand chef Tun et l'autre s'appretent. _ 

(Boileau.) 

Aspirer, to aspire. 

Et monte sur le faite, il aspire h, descendre. 

Assigner, to summon. 

On l'a assigne a comparaitre a la premiere audience. 

.S'Assujetir, to subject one's self. 

S'assujetir a gouverner un peuple. (FUchier.) 

S'Attacher, to apply one's self. 

Je me suis attache" a rechercher la veritable cause de ce fait. (Pascal.) 

(Meaning, to take pleasure in.) 
Le sort dont la rigueur a m'accabler s' attache. ( Voltaire.) 

S'Attendre, to expect. 

Les mourants qui parlent dans leurs testaments peuvent s'attendre a etre 
ecoutes comme des oracles. (La Bruytre.) 

WAugmenter, to increase. 

L'allegresse du cceur s'augmente a la r&pandre. (Molie*re.) 

Autoriser, to authorize. 

A ne vous rien cacher son amour m'awfome. 

S'Avilir, to vilify. 

La vertu s'avilit a se justifier. 

( Voltaire.) 

Et sans jamais s'avilir a repondre 
Laisse au mepris le soin de les confondre. 

(Gresset.) 

Avoir, to have. 

This verb signifies the state of mind, the disposition, the 
will, which we experience when we intend to perform that 
which is expressed by the verb in the infinitive : 

Vous avez h combattre et les dieux et les hommes. (Racine.) 

Balancer, to hesitate. 

Tandis qu'a me repondre ici vous balancez. 

(Racine.) 



684 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



Borner, to limit. 

La religion n'a pas, comme la philosophie, bornS toute sa gloire a essayer 
de former un sage dans chaque siecle ; elle en a peuple les villes. 

(Massillon.) 

Se BorneVj to be satisfied. 

L'homme de bien est celui qui n'est ni un saint ni un tievot, et qui s'est 
borne a tfavoir que de la vertu. (La Bruyere.) 

Chercher, to attempt, to try. 

L'homme du meilleur esprit parle peu, n'ecrit point, il ne cherche point 
a imaginer ni a plaire. (La Bruyere.) 

Se Complaire, to please one's self. 

Dieu se complait, ma fille, a, voir du haut des cieux 
Ces grands combats d'un cceur sensible et vertueux. 

(Voltaire.) 

Concourir, to concur. 

Toutes ces choses concourent a etablir les livres divins. (Bossuet.) 

Condamner, to condemn. 

Est ce qu'a /aire peur on veut vous condamner. 

{Boileau.) 

Se Condamner^ to condemn one's self. 

Que serait la puissance des rois s'ils se condamnassenl a en jouir touts 
seuls. (Massillon.) 

Consentir, to consent. 

La crainte des supplices ou d'une mort prochaine, ne peut le faire con- 
sentir a payer de rancon pour lui. 

Consister, to consist. 

La liberalite consiste moins d, donner beaucoup qu'ti donner a propos. 

(La Bruyere.) 

The verb consister, to consist, before a noun, takes the 
preposition en, in, without the article, or dans with the article. 

Some writers, even the Academy itself, give to the verb 
consister the prepositions to and of before an infinitive. This 
is a matter of taste, the ear must be consulted ; but, as a guide 
to the student, we shall say that to is most generally used. 



REGIMEN OF VERBS. 685 

Conspirer, to conspire, to contribute. 

Tout m'afflige et me nuit et conspire a me nuire. 

(Racine.) 

Se Consumer, to wear out, to ruin. 

Ce peu,que mes vieux ans m'ont laisse de vigueur, 
Se consume sans fruit a chercher ce vainqueur. 

(Corneille.) 

Contribuer, to cooperate. 

II y a dans certains hommes une certaine mediocrite d'esprit qui con- 
tribue a les rendre sages. (La Bruyere.) 

Convier, to invite. 

Puisque mon roi lui meme a parler me convie. 

(Racine.) 

Couter, to cost. 

II n'y a rien qui coute davantage a approuver et a louer que ce qui 
est le plus digne d'approbation et de louanges. (La Bruyere.) 

Determiner, to induce. 

Malgre leurs peines et leurs soins, ses amis ne purent jamais le deter- 
miner a rester au milieu d'eux. (BartheUmy.) 

Se Determiner, to resolve. 

Dion s^ttait enfin determine a delivrer sa patrie du joug sous lequel elle 
gemissait. (Id.) 

Disposer, to dispose, to induce. 

II y a dans le cceur de celui qui prie, un fond de bonne volonte qui le 
dispose a embrasser et a sentir la verite. (Flechier.) 

Se Disposer, to get ready, to resolve. 

A marcher sur mes pas, Bajazet se dispose. 

(Racine.) 

Etre Dispose, to be ready. 

Je vois qu'ft m'obeir vous etes disposee. 

(Id.) 

Se Divertir, to please one's self. 

II se divertit beaucoup a faire ajuster sa maison et y depense bien de 

1'argent. 
Je me suis extremement divertie a mediter sur les caprices de l'amour. 

(Madame de SfoignL) 

58 



686 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Donner, to give. 

Je te donne a combattre un homme redoutable. 

{Corneille.) 

Employer, to employ. 

Employez mon amour a venger cette mort. 

(Id.) 

Encourager, to encourage. 

Je cours a vous servir encourager son ame. (Voltaire.) 

Engager, to induce. 

L'interet qui fait tout, les pourrait engager 
A vous donner retraite et meme a vous venger. 

(Id.) 

Enhardir, to embolden. 

Un premier succes cnhardit a en tenter de nouveaux. 

Enseigner, to teach. 

Mechant, c'est bien a vous d'oser ainsi nommer 
Un Dieu que votre bouche enseigne a blasphemer. 

(Racine.) 

S'Entendre, to understand. 

II s'entend parfaitement a mener une intrigue. 

S'Etudier, to try. 

Je m'&tudit a chercher les causes secretes. (Bossuet.) 

S'Evertuer, to strive. 

La rime est une esclave, 

Lorsqu'a la bien chercher d'abord on s'evertue. 

(Boileau.) 

Exceller, to excel. 

II excelle a conduire un char dans sa carrihre. 

(Racine.) 

Exciter, to urge. 

Ma gloire, mon repos, tout m 1 excite a partir. 

S J Exciter, to urge one's self. 

On s'excite a la penitence afin de s* exciter a glorifier le Pere celeste. 

(FUchier. 



REGIMEN OP VERBS. (587 



Exhorter, to exhort. 

Je vous exhorte non pas a pleurer une reine, mais a writer une bienfai- 
trice. (Flechier.) 

S' Expos er,. to expose one's self. 
Je unexpose a me perdre et cherche a vous servir. ( Voltaire.) 

Se Fatiguer, to tire one's self. 

Je me fatiguerais ate tracer le cours, 

Des outrages cruels qu'il me fait touts les jours. 

(Boileau.) 

S'Habituer, to accustom one's self. 

(La rime,) 

L'esprit a la trouver aise merit s'habitue. 

(Id.) 

Hair, to hate. 

Tel qui hait a se voir peint en de faux portraits, 
Sans chagrin voit tracer ses veritables traits. 

(Id.) 

Se Hasarder, to risk. 

Je se hasarda a passer les Alpes. ( Voltaire.) 

Hesiter, to hesitate. 

II n'he'site pas a favoriser son evasion. 

(J. J. Rosseau.) 

Instruire, to train. 

Vous me donnez des noms qui doivent me surprendre, 
Madame ; on ne m'a pas instruite a les entendre. 

(Racine.) 

Slnteresser, to take an interest. 

Je m'inte'resse a vous faire obtenir cette place. 

Inviter, to invite, to engage. 

On nous invite a diner chez le roi. 

(Corneille.) 

Se Lasser, to tire one's self. 

L'auteur enfin se lassant t), polir une rime. 

(Boileau.) 

This verb takes equally well the preposition de, of, before 
an infinitive ; as, 



688 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Auguste s'est lasse d'etre si vigoureux. 

Mettre, to put. 

Admirateur zele de ces maitres fameux, 

Je mets toute ma gloire d, marcher apres eux. 

(Racine.) 

Se Mettre, to set one's self. 

Touts mes sots a la fois ravis de l'ecouter, 
Detonnant de concert, se mettent a chanter. 

(Boileau.) 

Montrer, to teach. 

Get homme m'a montri a lire et a ecrire. 

S'Obstiner, to persist* 

L'Academie, en corps a beau le censurer, 
Le public revolte s'obstine a V admirer. 

{Boileau.} 

S'Offrir, to offer one's self. 
Je rrCoffre a. servir son courroux. ( Voltaire.) 
This verb takes also the preposition de, of; as, 
II offre de prendre ma maison. (Academy.) 

Avoir peine, to be hard. 

On a peine d, hair ce qu'on a bien aime. 

(Corneille.) 

Pencher, to incline. 

Je penche d'autant plus ti lui vouloir du bien, 
Q,ue s'en voyant indigne, il ne demande rien. 

(id.) 

Penser, to think, to intend. 

Avez-vous j'amais pense tl offrir a. Dieu touts ces souffrances 
II pense a me trainer a la mort. (Massillon.) 

Perseverer, to persevere, to persist. 

II perstv&re & soutenir ce qu'il a dit. (Academy.) 

Persister, to persist. 

II persiste a- demeurer Chretien. 

(Corneille.) 



REGIMEN OF VERBS. 689 



Se Plaire, to please one's self. 

Le ciel dans une nuit profonde 
Se plait a nous cacher ses lois. 

(J. B.Rousseau.) 

Prendre plaisir, to take pleasure. 

Prennent-ils done plaisir a faire des coupables, 
Arm d'en faire apres d'illustres miserables. 

(Racine.) 

Se Plier, to submit. 

Aflechir sa fierte son amant se pliait. ( Voltaire.) 

Se Preparer, to prepare one's self. 

La terre compte peu de ces rois bienfaisants, 
Le ciel a les former se pripare longtems. 

(Boileau.) 

PrStendre, to pretend. (Neuter verb.) 

Caton dans touts les temps gardant son caractere, 
Mourut pour les Romains sans pritendre d, leur plaire. 

( Voltaire.) 

When active, as already remarked, this verb is followed by 
an infinitive, without a preposition ; as, 

II pretend marcher en avant, 

II pretend donner des lois a tout le monde. 

Provoquer, to provoke. 
II me provoque a boire et ujouer. (Academy.) 

Reduire, to reduce, to compel. 

Le sort vous a rtduit a courier a la fois, 
Les durs Sydoniens et vos jaloux Cretois. 

( Voltaire.) 

Se Reduire, to end. 

Tout ce discourse se reduit tt prouver que vous avez tort. (Academy.) 

Renoncer, to renounce. 
Desormais, je renonce ii vous plaire. 
Repugner, to repugn. 

Je repugne souverainement a faire cela. (Academy.) 

58* 



690 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

This verb, used impersonally, takes the preposition de, of; as, 

II me repugne de vous entretenir d'un pareil sujet. (Academy.) 

Se Resigner, to submit. 

On se rhigne aisement d, souffrir un mal que les autres endurent. 

(Stneque.) 

Se Resoudre, to resolve. 
Je me risolus a demander et a attendre. (Academy.) 

Reussir, to succeed. 

Quoique tu fasses, tu ne peux reussir h t'en /aire un complice. 

(Voltaire.) 

Risquer, to risk. 

Songez qu'on risque tout & me le refuser. 

(Corneille.) 

This verb takes the preposition a, to, after a direct object, as 
above. When neuter, in its signification, it takes de, of; as, 

Vous risquez de beaucoup perdre pour peu gagner. 
Vous risquez de tomber. (Academy.) 

Servir, to be useful, proper, good, for some purpose. 

La moderation sert a cacher les mouvements de la vanite. 
L'exemple des grands sert tipropager la vertu. (Bossuet.) 

Songer, to think of. 

Je songe it rtgler mes desirs, it previnir l'orage, 

A sauver, s'il se peut, ma raison du naufrage. (Boileau.) 

Suffire, to suffice. 

This verb governs a, to, or pour, for ; as, 

Souvent la raison suffit a- nous conduire. 
L'esperance suffit pour rendre heureux. 

( Voltaire.) 

When used impersonally, it takes sometimes a, to, and some- 
times de, of ; as, 

II suffit d'etre malheureux pour etre injuste. 
II suffit a mon ambition que vous soyez tombe. 

Tarder, to defer. 

Si le sens de vos vers tarde a- sefaire entendre, 
Mon esprit aussitot commence a se detendre. 

(Boileau.) 



t\x\ 



REGIMEN OF VERBS. 691 

Used impersonally, this verb takes the preposition de, of ; 

as, 

II me tarde de partir. 

Tendre, to have a tendency. 

Les tendresses inexprimables de Marie Therese tendaient toutes it inspi- 
re? a son fils la foi, la piete, la crainte de Dieu. (Bossuet.) 

Tenir, to pretend. 
II tient iijinir lui meme cet ouvrage. (Academy.) 

Travailler, to work. 
II travaillait a purifier son cceur, non pas d, polir son esprit. (Massillon.) 

Trembler, to tremble. 
The Academy says : 

Trembler de froid. 

Trembler comme la feuille. 

Je tremble d'avouer. 

Je tremble pour vous. 

Je tremble a l'idee de vous deplaire. 

Toute la terre tremblait devant lui. 

Viser, to aim at. 
II vise d, vous remplacer. (Academy.) 



2000. OF VERBS GOVERNING THE PREPOSITION de, OF, 
BEFORE AN INFINITIVE. 

S'Abstenir, to refrain. 
Abstenez-xous de nuire a votre ennemi. (Massillon.) 

Accuser, to accuse. 

Les courtisans de Darius accusaient Daniel d'avoir viole la loi des Perses. 

(Massillon.) 

Etre Accuse, to be charged with. 
Socarte/w£ accuse' de nier les dieux que le peuple adorait. (Bossuet.) 

S' Accuser, to accuse one's self. 
II s'est accuse d'avoir rompu le jeune. (Pascal.) 



I 



692 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Achever, to achieve. 

Verite que j'implore, acheve de descend™. 

(Racine.) 

Affecter, to affect, to pretend. 

Pour eblouir les yeux, la fortune arrogante 
Affecta d^italer une pompe insolente. 

(Boileau.) 
Nous affectons souvent de louer avec exageration des hommes asses medi- 
ocres. (La Bruyere.) 

Etre AjJUge, to be sorry. 

Je suis sensiblement affiige de voir que votre colique ne vous quitte point. 

(Voltaire.) 

S'Affliger, to grieve at. 

On ne s'est peut etre jamais avise de s'affliger de n ) avoir pas trois yeux, 
mais on est inconsolable de n'en avoir qu'un. (Pascal.) 

Agir, to be questioned of. 

This verb, used impersonally, means to be questioned of, and 
then it governs c?e, of, before the infinitive ; as, 

II ne sait plus parler quand il s'agit de demander. (FUchier.) 

Etre Men Jlise, to be glad. 

On est toujours Men aise d'avoir des gens de bien pour defenseurs et pour 
juges. (Massillon.) 

Ambitionner, to be ambitious. 
La Duchesse de Mazarin a. qui l'on ambitionne deplaire. ( Voltaire.) 

Jlppartenir, to belong. 

Used impersonally, this verb governs de, of, before an in- 
finitive ; as, 

II n'appartient qu'a la religion d'instruire et de corriger les hommes. 
II n' appartient qu'aux femmes de /aire lire dans un seul mot tout un sen- 
timent. (La Bruyere.) 

S'Applaudir, to praise one's self. 

Je m'applaudissais de retrouver en vous, 
Ainsi que les vertus, les traits de mon epoux. 

( Voltaire.) 



REGIMEN OF VERBS. 693 

Apprehender, to apprehend. 
Elle apprehendait d J abuser des mise'ricordes de Dieu. (Flechier.) 

Avertir, to warn. 

Souffrez quelques froideurs sans les faire eclater, 
Et n" 1 avertissez point la cour de vous quitter. 

{Racine.) 

S>Jlviser, to think. 

Notre esprit est si bizarre qu'il s'avise de louer morts des gens qu'il de- 
nigrait vivants. {La Bruytre.) 

Bldmer, to blame. 

Je ne puis te bldmer d'avoirfui l'infamie. 

{Corneille.) 

Briguer, to seek with eagerness. 

J'ai brigue, pour mon sang, pour le heros que j'aime, 
L'honneur de commander dans ce peril extreme. 

( Voltaire.) 

Bruler, to long, to be anxious. 

Voici cet etranger 

Que nos tristes soupcons brulaient d'interroger. { Voltaire.) 

Cesser, to cease. 
Grand roi, cesse de vaincre, ou je cesse d'Scrire. {Boileau) 

Charger, to beg. 
Elle nous a charges de vous temoigner toute son impatience. {FUchier.) 

Se Charger, to take upon one's self. 
II se charge de les dbfendre. {Massillon.) 

Choisir, to choose. 
Choisis de leur donner ton sang ou de l'encens. {Corneille.) 

Commander, to order. 
II commande au soleil d'animer la nature. 

Conjurer, to adjure. 
II conjurait ce Dieu de veiller sur vos jours. {Racine.) 

Conseiller, to advise. 
Je lui conseillerais de s'assurer d'un autre. {Corneille.) 



694 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Se Contenter, to content one's self. 

Ceux que vous outragez se contentent d'offrir a Dieu leurs gemissements. 

{Pascal) 

Convenir, to be convenient. 

J'ai commande qu'on porte a votre pere. 
Les faibles dons qu'il convient de vous faire. 

( Voltaire.) 

Avoir Coutume. (See Accoutumer.) 

Craindre, to fear. 

Sans cesse on prend le masque et quittant la nature, 
On craint de se montrer sous sa propre figure. 

Dedaigner, to disdain. 

Ce cceur, c'est trop vous le celer, 
N'a point d'un chaste amour dedaignt de bruler. 

(Racine.) 

Defendre, to forbid. 

Ce desole vieillard, qui hait la raillerie, 

Lui difend deparler, sort du lit en furie. (Boileau.) 

Se Desaccoutumer, to leave off. 
II se disaccoutume un peu de jurer. (Academy.) 

Desesjferery to despair. 
Salomon disespdrd de trouver cette femme forte. (FUchier.) 

Desirer, to desire. 
II y a longtems que je desirais de vous rencontrer. (Academy.) 

This verb sometimes is followed by an infinitive without any 
preposition, but it is only when the desire expressed is sure to 
be accomplished immediately ; in any other case, it takes de, 
of; as, 

Je desire le voir, V entendre, lui parler. (Academy.) 

Detester, to detest. 
This verb is used either with or without the preposition c/e, of, 
before an infinitive. The Academy does not decide as to the 
propriety of employing the preposition, but custom has, in some 
way, settled that it should not be used. Thus we shall say, 

Je de" teste rester (and not de rester) longtems a table. 



REGIMEN OF VERBS. 695 

Se Devoir, to owe to one's self. 
Je me dois dewous montrer le bien que vous avez perdu. (Academy.) 

Differer, to defer, to delay. 

Biff brer d'etre heureux apres son inconstance, 
C'est montrer, &c. 

(Corneille.) 

Dire, to tell. 

Bites au roi, seigneur, de vous Yabandonner. 

(Racine.) 

Disconvenir, to disagree. 
Vous ne sauriez disconvenir de m'avoir dit. (Academy.) 

Discontinuer, to discontinue. 
II ne discontinue pas de parler. (Academy.) 

Dispenser, to dispense. 
II demande qu'on le dispense de condamner un innocent. (Massillon.) 

Se Dispenser, to excuse one's self. 

Nous ne pouvons nous dispenser dHmiter ses vertus. (Id.) 

Se Disculper, to exonerate one's self. 
II s'est disculpe d 'avoir fait son discours trop long. (La Bruybre.) 

Dissuader, to dissuade. 

On l'a dissuade de commettre cette faute. 

Douter, to doubt. 

lis n'osent plus douter de nous avoir surpris. 

(Corneille.) 

Empecher, to prevent. 

La crainte de faire des ingrats ne l'a jamais empichi de /aire le bien. 

(Flbchier.) 

S' 'Empecher. (See Empecher.) 

Entreprendre, to undertake. 

lis entreprirent en vain de rbgler les mceurs et de corriger les hommes par 
la force seule de la raison. (Massillon.) 



696 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

S'Etonner, to wonder. 

L'univers s'itonne de trouver toutes les vertus en un seal homme. 

{Bossuet.) 

Etre Etonne. (See S'Etonner.) 

Enrager, to enrage. 

II enrage de voir son ennemi dans ce poste brillant. {Academy.) 

Eviter, to avoid. 

Un vers etait trop faible et vous le rendez dur ; 
Vivite d'etre long et je deviens obscur. 

(Boileau. ) 

Excuser, to excuse. 

Je Vai excuse aupres du roi, d 'avoir ose parler ainsi. {Academy.) 

S'Excuser, to apologize. 

Et vous vous excusez de m'avoir fait heureux. 

{Racine.) 

Feindre, to feign. 

II feignait de maimer, je l'aimais en effet. 

{Corneille.) 

Feliciter, to congratulate. 
Je vous filicite d 'avoir fait un aussi bon mariage. {Academy.) 

Se Feliciter, to congratulate one's self. 
Je me filicite d? avoir fait un si bon choix. (Academy?) 

Se Flatterer, to boast. 

II s'est Jiattt de plaire et n'a pas reussi. {Academy.) 

Fremir, to tremble. 

Et deja tout confus, tenant midi sonne, 
En soi meme frimit de ri 'avoir point dine. 

{Boileau.) 

Avoir Garde, not to be willing. 

II n'a garde de tromper, il est trop homme de bien. {Academy.) 
II n'a garde d'aller avouer cela, ce serait faire tort a son pere. 

Prendre Garde, to take care. 

Prenez garde de tomber. 



REGIMEN OF VERBS. 697 

If the infinitive be accompanied by a negation, to is used 
instead of of : 
Prenez garde a ne pas trop vous engager dans cette affaire. (Lavaux.) 

Se Garder, take care not to. 

Gardez vous d'imiter ce rimeur furieux. 

(Boilcau.) 

Gemir, to lament. 

II gimit en secret de perdre ce qu'il aime. ( Voltaire.) 

Se Glorifier, to be proud of. 

Tant qn'Alexandre eut en tete un si grand capitaine, il put se glorifier 
d' 'avoir vaincu un ennemi digne de lui. (Bossuet.) 

Rendre Grace, to give thanks. 
Je rends graces aux dieux de n'etre pas Romain. ( Corneille.) 

Hasarder, to risk. 

II vaut mieux hasarder de sauver un coupable que de condamner un inno 
cent. (Voltaire.) 

We say equally well : 
Je me hasarderai a /aire cette proposition. (Academy.) 

Se Hater, to hasten. 
Hatons nous de purifier notre cceur. (Bossuet.) 

Avoir Honte, to be ashamed. 
J'ai honte de montrer tant de melancolie. 

But we say with the article : 
H y a de la honte a se conduire ainsi. 

Imputer, to impute. 

This verb, followed by a noun and an infinitive, takes the 
preposition de, of : as, 

Endurer que l'Espagne impute a ma memoir d'avoir mal soutenu l'honneur 
de ma maison. (Corneille.) 

S'lndigner, to feel indignant. 

Tous ces rois, dont le sang dans nos veines transmis, 
S'indigna si longtems de nous voir ennemis. ( Voltaire.) 

59 



698 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

S'Ingerer, to meddle with. 

Tenez, dites a votre maitre 
Qu'il ne s'ingere pas d'oser ecrire encore. 

(Moliere.) 

Inspirerj to inspire. 
Dieu se plait a recompenser ceux a qui il inspire de le servir. 

• Jurer, to swear. 

Oui, nous jurons ici, pour nous, pour tous nos freres, 
De ritablir Joas au trone de ses peres. 

{Racine.) 

Mediter, to intend. 

II y a longtemps que je mddite de vous icrire. ( Voltaire. ) 

Se Meier de, to pretend. 

Un gros fermier qui fait le petit maitre, fait l'inconstant, se mile d'etre un 
fat. (Id.) 

Menacer, to threaten. 

On me menace, 

Si je ne sors d'ici, de me battler cent coups. 

(Moliere.) 

La discorde en ces lieux menace de s'accroitre. 

(Boileau.) 

Meriter to deserve. 

Cette ressemblance oii son courage aspire, 
Mirite mieux que toi de gouverner l'empire. 

Negliger, to neglect. 
Un auteur n'est jamais parfait quand il niglige d'Stre aimable. (Bernis.) 

Nier, to deny. 

This verb takes de before an infinitive, when this infinitive 
relates to the nominative of the verb nier : as, 
II nie d'avoir dit cela. 

When it does not, then it takes que and the subjunctive : 

Je ne nie pas que vous ayez dit cela. 

Ordonner, to order. 

Mon pere, avec les Grecs, mordonne departir. 

(Racine.) 



REGIMEN OF VERBS. 699 

Pardonner, to pardon. 

Je lui pardonne 
De priferer les beautes 
De Ceres et de Pomone 

Au tumulte des cites. {Rousseau.) 

Parler, to speak. 

J'ai su que ce traitre d'amant, 
Parle de mobtenir par un enlevement. 

(Moliere.) 

Permettre, to tolerate. 

Dieu permit aux vents et a la mer de gronder. (Flechier.) 

Persuader, to persuade. 

On lui a persuade de se marier. (Academy.) 

Avoir Peur, to fear. 
As tu peur de mourir. ( Corneille.) 

Se Piquer, to boast. 

Je ne me pique point du scrupule insense 
De binir mon trepas quand ils l'ont annonce. 

(Racine.) 

Plaindre, to pity. 

Je te plains de tomber dans ses mains redoutables. (Id.) 

Sefaire un Plaisir, to take delight. 

Je me suis fait \mplaisir necessaire 

De la voir chaque jour, de Yaimer, de lui plaire. 

Prescrire, to prescribe. 

Tu m'tfs prescrit tantot de choisir des victimes. 

( Corneille.) 

Presser, to urge. 

Je ne te presse plus, ingrat, d'y consentir. 

(Racine.) 

Se Presser, to make haste. 

On obeit, on se presse d'tcrire. (Boileau.) 

Presumer, to presume. 

Cessez de presumer, 
Mes vers, de voir en foule, a vos rimes glacees, 
Courir, l'argent en main, les lecteurs empresses. (Boileau.) 



700 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Prier, to beg. 
Je le prie, en mourant, d'epargner mes douleurs. 

When prier signifies to invite, it takes the preposition a, to ; 
as, 

On la prtt a diner ; 

and sometimes the preposition pour, for ; as, 
II s'est fait frier pour chanter. [Academy.) 

Promettre, to promise. 

Je promets d'observer ce que la loi m'ordonne. 

(Racine.) 

Se Promettre, to hope. 

Q,ui peut se promettre oVeviter dans la societe des hommes la rencontre 
de certains esprits facheux ? 

Proposer, to propose. 
L'Angleterre propose au Sultan de lui cider le Nil. 

Se Proposer, to intend. 
II se propose de vivre desormais dans sa retraite. (Academy.) 

Protester, to protest. 
II lui protesta de ne Vabandonner jamais. 

The same observation is applicable here, which we have 
made with respect to the verb nier. 

Punir, to punish. 

Le ciel me punit d'avoir trop ecoute, 
D'un oracle imposteur la fausse obscurite. 

( Voltaire.) 

. Etre Rassasie, to be satiated. 

Nous nous lassons de tout, nos plaisirs ont leur fin et l'homme n'est 
jamais rassasii de vivre. (J. Racine.) 

Etre Ravi, to be enraptured. 

Je sais ta passion, et suis ravi de voir 

Que touts tes mouvements cedent a ton devoir. 

The same observation as upon the verb nier. 

Recommander, to exhort. 
Recommendez a vos enfants de fair le vice et oV aimer la vertu. 



REGIMEN OF VERBS. 701 

Refuser , to refuse. 

Pegase pour eux, refuse de voter. 

(Boileau.) 

In these expressions, refuser a boire, a manger, d coucher, the 
verb in the infinitive stands instead of a noun, which is le boire, 
le manger , le coucher, or what is necessary to drink, to eat, &c. 

Regretter, to regret. 
Les peuples regretteront d'avoir chasse leur Roi. 

Avoir Regret, to regret. 
J'ai regret de vous voir dans l'erreur. 

Se Rejouir, to rejoice. 
Je me rejouis de lui apprendre cette bonne nouvelle. 

Se Repentir, to repent. 

Trop tard, dans le naufrage, 

On se repent d'avoir brave l'orage. 

[Boileau.) 

Se Reprocher, to reproach. 

Je ne me reproche point de Vavoir trompe. 

Resoudre, to resolve. 

When this verb is used actively, and in the sense of to de- 
cide, it takes de before an infinitive ; as, 

Madame la Dauphine vit toutes les dimensions de sa croix et resolut de 
s'y laisser attacker sans se plaindre. 

When employed passively, it takes either de or a; as, 

Apres tant de malheurs, le ciel enfin proprice, 
Est resolu, ma fille, & nous rendre justice. 

[Corneille.) 
Vous etes risolu rf'abandonner Byzance. 

When pronominal or reflective, this verb takes a, to ; as, 

Resous toi, pauvre epoux, ti vivre de couleuvres. 
Quelque fois & ceder ma fierte se resout. 

Rire, to laugh. 

Je riais de le voir avec se mine etique, 

Son rabbat jadis blanc et sa perruque antique. 

(Boileau.) 
59* 



702 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Rougir, to blush. 

Je rougissais dans Fame 

De me voir oblige d'accuser ce grand ccetir. 

( Voltaire,) 

Seoir, to fit. 

This verb, now used only impersonally, takes de before an 

infinitive ; as, 

11 te sied bien d'avoir en de si jeunes mains 
Charge* d'ans et d'honneurs, eonfie ses desseins. 

(Racine.) 

This sentence is ironical, but the following is not : 

C'est a toi, Lamoignon, 

QuHl sied bien d'y veiller pour le maintien des lois. 

Avoir Soin, to take care. 

Elle eut soin de peindre et d'orner son visage. 

, Prendre Soin, to have care. 

11 prit soin de n'etre pas vu quand il commit le crime. 

Sommer, to summon. 
On a somme" le gouverneur de se rendre. 

Souffrir, to permit. 

Je souffre encore 

D'etre deshonore par celle que j'adore. 

(Corneille.) 

Souhaiter, to wish. 

Qui vous a dit que malgre mon devoir, 

Je n'ai pas quelque fois souhaiU de vous voir. 

( Corneille.) 

This verb is sometimes elegantly used without a preposition 

before an infinitive. 

Soupponner, to suspect. 

II est soupponne 1 , or on le soupponne d' 'avoir commis ce crime. 

Se Souvenir, to remember. 

Souvenez-vous surtout de ripondre delui. (Voltaire.) 

Suffire, to suffice. 

The Academy recognizes several modes of using this verb 
with an infinitive, as follows : 



REGIMES OF VERBS. 703 

II suffit de vous dire. 

II suffit que je vous dise. 

Je ne puis suffire d, servir tant de monde. 

La plus legere contrariete suffit pour l'arreter. 

Suggerer, to suggest. 

C'est la religion qui lui a suggere de /aire cette belle ceuvre. 

[Massilloyi.) 

Supplier j to supplicate. 

Je vous supplie de m^expliquer, 
Ce que vous pensez de l'amitie. 

(Boileau.) 

Etre Surpris, to be astonished. 

II fut surpris de se voir meprise ; 

but when it signifies to be caught, the preposition a, to, must be 
preferred ; as, 

Je Vai surpris ^ me derober de Pargent. (Academy.) 

Prendre a Tache, to assume the task. 

AveZ'Vous pris d, tache de me contredire sur tout? (Id.) 

Tenter, to attempt. 

Mon nom deviendra cher aux siecles avenir, 
Pour avoir seulement tente" de vous punir. 

( Voltaire.) 

Etre Tente, to be tempted. 
Jefus Men tente de lui ripondre. (Academy.) 

Trembler, to fear, to apprehend. 
II faut que je tremble de revoir Nelson. (Mormontel.) 

Se Trouver, to be satisfied. 

Vous vous trouverez bien de les avoir suivis. 

(Corntille.) 

Se Vanter, to boast. 
Le monde se vante defaire des heureux. (Massillon.) 



704 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



2001. Of verbs which change their signification 
in consequence of being followed by a or de be- 
fore an infinitive. 

The verbs which change their signification in consequence 
of being followed by either of the prepositions de, of, or a, to, 
before an infinitive, are the following : 



Accoutumer, 


to accustom 


Commencer, 


to begin. 


Continuer, 


to continue. 


Defier, 


to defy. 


S'efforcer, 


to attempt. 


Etre, 


to be. 


Laisser, 


to leave. 


S'occuper, 


to think. 


Manquer, 


to want. 


Obliger, 


to oblige. 


Oublier, 


to forget. 


Risquer, 


to risk. 


Tacher, 


to try. 


Essayer, 


to try. 


Venir, 


to come. 



Accoutumer, to accustom. 

This verb, used actively, and followed by an infinitive, takes 
the preposition a, to ; as, 

II ne faut pas accoutumer les peuples a prendre les renes, a murmurer. 

When used impersonally, it takes also the preposition a, to ; 

as, 

II est bon de s' 'accoutumer d, profiter du mal, d, supporter les outrages 
de la fortune, & souffrir la verite. 

But when used as a neuter verb, and signifying to be in the 
habit, it is followed by de, of; as, 

Elle joignait a I'ambition assez ordinaire de son sexe, un courage qu'on 
rCa pas accoutume oVy trouver. ( Bossuet.) 

This phraseology, however, is not much used now, and it 
would be better to say : 

Qu'on n'a pas coutume d'y trouver. 



REGIMEN OF VERBS. 705 

When conjugated with etre, to be, this verb takes the prep- 
osition a, to ; as, 
Les rois sont accoutume's a avoir des gens charges de penser pour eux. 

Commencer, to commence. 

Commence?*, expressing an action which will progress towards 
an end,. is followed by the preposition de, of; as, 

Cet avocat commenqa deparhrk six heures et finit a neuf. 

The action of the verb, in this example, commences at six 
o'clock to continue until nine. 

But when this verb expresses only the beginning of an action, 

without the idea of its end being presented to the mind, then it 

takes the preposition a, to ; as, 

Cet enfant commence a parler, a marcher. 
Ma fille commence a, chanter assez bien. 

Continuer, to continue. 

Continuer may signify that an action is continued with or 
without interruption : if continued without interruption, the 
verb takes the preposition a, to ; if with interruption, to be 
continued from time to time, it takes de, of; as, 

Pensez-vous que votre pere continue a me garder rancune ? 

Ma femme continue a se mal porter. 

Quoique j'aie a me plaindre de votre sceur, je continue de la voir (from 

time to time). 
Je continuerai de vous ecrire par la suite (same observation). 

Defier, to defy. 

When defier signifies to set at defiance, it takes the preposi- 
tion de, of; as, 

Je vous de/ie de m'oublier jamais. 

Je dtftais ses yeux de me troubler jamais. 

The first sentence means : 

Attempt to forget me, if you dare, you will never succeed. 
The second : 
Although her eyes were beautiful, I could gaze on them without danger. 

But when the verb defier means to provoke, to excite, it 
takes the preposition a, to ; as, 

Je l'ai dejie'ilboire, a la paume, aux echecs, &c. 



706 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Defter means here : 

I provoked him to drink, to know who would drink the most ; 
I provoked him to play, to know who would play the best. 

S'Efforcer, to attempt. 

This verb signifies to use all one's might to do a thing, and 
takes the preposition a, to, or de, of; as, 

Ne vous efforcez pas d, parler. 

L'on s'efforcerait en vain de mefermer la bouche. 

Etre, to be. 

When etre is joined to the pronoun ce, it may represent two 
different ideas : an idea of turn, and an idea of duty or right. 
In the first instance, it takes a, to ; in the second, de, of. 

C'est d vous a parler means, It is your turn to speak. C'est 
a vous de parler means, It is your duty to speak, you have the 
right of speaking. Thus we say : 

C'est a, vous a donner (playing cards, means, It is your turn to deal). 
C'est a, vous de jouer (Why don't you play, you ought to play, it is your 
duty, your right to play). 

Laisser, to leave. 

When laisser is used figuratively, and means to transmit, it 
takes the preposition a, to ; as, 

Va, ne me laisse pas un heros a venger. 
This sentence signifies : 

Do not transmit to me the duty of revenge. (Voltaire.) 

When this verb means to cease, to abstain, to continue, and 
is used with a negation, it takes de, of, before the infinitive ; 
as, 

Lorsqu'il semblait ceder, il ne laissait pas de se faire craindre. 

This sentence signifies, that, 

Although he seemed to yield, they still feared him. 

Manquer, to want. 

When manquer means to fail in your duty towards somebody 
or something, it takes a, to, before an infinitive ; as, 
On mesestime celui qui manque u remplir ses devoirs. 



REGIMEN OF VERBS. 707 

When it means to omit, to forget to do a thing, this verb 
takes de, of ; as, 

Qui cherche Dieu de bonne foi, ne manque jamais de le trouver. 

It also takes de, of, when it signifies to be on the point of, 
although the sense is affirmative ; as, 

II a manque" de se noyer, de tomber. 

S'Occuper, to occupy one's self with. 

This verb, when expressing an action which is materially 

performed, takes a, to ; but when signifying only an occupation 

of the mind, it takes de, of.; as, 

Je m'occupe atravailler a mon jardin, 

means, 

I really do work in my garden. 

Je m'occupe de dStruire mon jardin, 

means, 

I am thinking about destroying my garden. 

Obliger, to oblige. 

When obliger signifies to compel, to impose the obligation of 
doing or saying something, it takes the preposition a, to ; as, 
La loi naturelle nous oblige a honorer pere et mere. 

Some grammarians admit the use of de, of, in similar cases, 
but a is far better. 

When this verb means to assist, to do a favor, de ought to 
follow it without exception ; as, 

Vous m'obligerez beaucoup de me recommander a mes juges. 

When used with etre, de, of, should only be used after it ; 

as, 

Nous sommes obliges de vivre selon nos moyens, 
Si nous voulons meriter l'estime des honnetes gens. 

When obliger expresses only a moral duty, it is applied to 

persons, and not to things ; as, 

On est oblige" oVobeir aux lois divines et humaines. 
On est oblige" de riprimer ses passions. 

We cannot say, 

La jeunesse est obligfa d'avoir du respect pour les personnes agees, 



708 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

but, 

La jeunesse doit avoir du respect, &c, 

or, 

Unjeune homrne est oblige, &c. 

We cannot say, 

La critique est obligee d'etre severe contre les livres immoraux, 
but, 

La critique doit 6tre severe, &c. 

Risquer, to risk. 

The verb risquer, used as a neuter verb, meaning to hazard, 

to endanger, is followed by de, of, before an infinitive ; as, 

lis risquent de tout perdre pour sauver un homme. 
Vous risquez de tomber. 

Sometimes it is used with que and the subjunctive ; as, 
Vous risquez qu 1 on vous vole votre argent. 

When this verb means to run the risk of, it is then an active 
verb, and takes the preposition a, to, before its indirect object ; 
as, 

Vous risquez tout a prendre ce parti. 

Tdcher, to try, to attempt. 

When the verb tdcher means to aim at, or when the sense 
of the sentence in which it is employed relates rather to 
the end to be reached than to the efforts made to gain it, it 
takes the preposition de, of ; as, 

L'un tdche de Vemouvoir par le recit de sa misere, l'autre par celui de ses 

souffrances morales. 
Elle tdche de le gagner par ses douces paroles. 

A, to, was formerly used in this case, and is still employed 
by some writers, but we prefer de. However, we do not pre- 
tend to be absolute on this point ; but when the verb tdcher ex- 
presses the efforts which are made in order to succeed, more 
precisely than it regards the end to be gained, then de, of, is 
always used ; as, 

Je tdcherai de le satisfaire. 

Je tdcherai d'oublier cette injure. (Academy.) 

Essayer, to try, to aim at. 

When this verb signifies to aim at, or to make all possible 



REGIMEN OF VERBS. 709 

efforts to succeed in any thing, it takes the preposition d, to ; 
as, 

Ce musicien essaie ajouer les morceaux les plus difficiles. {Academy.) 

Cet enfant essaie a marcher. Id. 

Essayez a \efaire parler. 

Son bras s'essaie afrapper ses victimes. 

Because in these sentences the mind is more impressed with 
the end to be gained, than with the efforts to be made to gain 
it ; but if, on the contrary, we think of the efforts more than 
of the end to be gained, then de, of, is used : as, 

Cet homme faible et malade a essaye de se lever, de marcher, mais il est 

retombd sur son lit, sur sa chaise. 
On essaie de secouer le joug de la loi. 

Venir, to come. 

When venir relates to the place we arrive at, it takes no 
preposition before an infinitive, as we have already stated : as, 
Oui, je viens dans ton temple adorer l'Eternel. 

But when it means to have just done a thing, it takes the 
preposition de, of : as, 

II vient de partir pour la campagne. 

Je viens de vendre mon cheval et ma voiture. 

Venir, preceded by the preposition en, and meaning to 
arrive at, requires a, to, before an infinitive, as well as before a 
noun : as, 

lis en vinrent enfin a discuter la grande question, 
lis en vinrent aux reproches. 



2002. OF VERBS REQUIRING DIFFERENT PREPOSITIONS 
BEFORE AN INFINITIVE, ACCORDING TO EUPHONY. 

Contraindre, to constrain, to force. 

Deux horribles naufrages contraignirent les Romains d'abandonner l'em* 
pire des mers aux Carthaginois. 

In this example the verb abandonner, beginning with the 
letter a, requires the preposition of before it, instead of to, to 
avoid the repetition of the same sound. 
60 



710 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

II a fallu une loi pour regler l'exterieur de l'avocat, et le contraindre ainsi 
a Ure grave et plus respecte. 

A may be used here, because the verb which follows begins 
with a different vowel. 

Elle fut contrainte d demander le divorce, 

not de demander, the verb demander beginning with de ; but 
a demander, to avoid the repetition of the same syllable de. 

It seems, then, that the meaning of the sentence is not al- 
ways affected by the choice of the preposition, and so says the 
Academy ; but there are cases in which it makes a difference ; 
thus, we would not say, 
La ville fut contrainte a, but de, se rendre, 
de implying a stronger idea of necessity than a. 

Demander, to ask, to beg. 

The same consideration rules the use of to or of, with 
this verb ; thus, we say, 

Je demandai au ciel de jetter sur moi un regard de misericorde. 
Les larmes aux yeux, elle demandait a me voir. 
Je vous demande de m'e'couter. 
II demande a vous parler. 

S'Empresser, to be eager, in earnest. 

Tout le monde s'empresse a luifaire la cour. 
Pourquoi s'empresser a condamner sans preuves ? 

Vos genereuses mains s ' empressent d'effacer 

Les larmes que le ciel me condamne a verser. 

The satisfaction of the ear is the only reason of the change 
in these examples ; the sound of a before effacer being rather 
hard. 

The preposition of, with this verb, must be used when the 
action, expressed by the verb in the infinitive, relates to the 
nominative ; but to ought to be employed, if the same action 
is extended to a different object : as, 

Je m'empresse de marcher. 

Je m'empresse de dire que je suis satisfait. 

It is /who am in earnest, and it is /who walk ; it is /who 
am in earnest, and / who say. 



REGIMEN OF VERBS. 711 

Je m'empresse a vous consoler, a vous secourir. 

Because it is / who am in earnest, it is you who are con- 
soled. 

But the most useful and general indication to be followed, in 
these nice difficulties of the language, is this : 

Never use a before a verb beginning with the same letter, 
or when the sound produced by this preposition and the first 
syllable of the next word would be hard. 

Never use de when the next word begins with the same 
syllable, at least with the verbs which admit of the use of 
either of these prepositions. 



2003. A TABLE OF THE VERBS WHICH GOVERN PREPOSI- 
TIONS BEFORE THE NOUNS USED AS THEIR OBJECT. 

A. 

To abate of, rabattre de. 

He has much abated his pride. II a beaucoup rabattu de sa fierte. 

He will not abate a cent of his II ne vent pas rabattre un sol de son 
price. prix. 

To abide with, rester avec, demeurer chez. 

fElle est reside avec moi pendant des 

She has abode with me for years. < ^ nne 5 s * . , . , . , 

J i Jlille a demeurd chez moi pendant des 

^ annees. 

To abound in, or with, abonder en. 

This river abounds in fish of the Cette riviere dbonde en poissons du 

finest quality. meilleur gout. 

The works of this author abound in Les ouvrages de cet auteur abondent 

beauties of the first order. en beautes du premier ordre. 

To abstain from, s'abstenir de. 

We must abstain from all sorts of On doit s'abstenir de toute espece 
excesses. d'exces. 

To accede to, acceder a. 

I was unwilling to accede to his Je ne voulais pas acceder d, sa re- 
request, quete. 

To accommodate with, accommoder de. 

He has accommodated me with II m'a accommodd e?'un credit de six 
credit for six months. mois. 



712 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

To accommodate to, accommoder a. 

He accommodates himself to the II s'accommode au caractere des au- 
dispositions of others. tres. 

To accommodate with, assister de. 

He has accommodated us with a II nous a assistes d'un habit, rf'une 
coat, a pair of boots, &c. paire de bottes, &c. 

To accommodate to, proportionner a. 

We must accommodate our expenses On doit proportionner ses depenses 
to our means. a sa fortune. 

To accord with, s'accorder avec. 

I accord with you in that respect. Je rn'accorde avec vous sous ce rap- 
port. 

To accuse of, accuser de. 

You accuse me wrongfully of the Vous m'accusez faussement du vol 
robbery committed at your house. commis chez vous. 

To accustom to, accoutumer a. 

1 have accustomed my children to J'ai accoutumi mes enfants au tra- 
work. vail. 

To acquaint with, instruire de. 

Why have you not acquainted me Pourquoi ne m'avez vous pas in- 
with your misfortune? struit de votre malheur ? 

To acquiesce in, acquiescer a. 

Your father has acquiesced in my Votre pere a acquiesc6 a ma de- 
request, mande. 

To acquit one's self of, s'acquitter de . . . envers. 

He acquits himself of his duty to the II sacquitte de ses devoirs envers les 
poor. pauvres. 

To act from, agir d'apres. 

We must not always act from im- II ne faut pas toujours agir d'apres 
pulse. ses inspirations. 

To act up to, agir conformement a. 

A good officer always acts up to Un bon officier agit toujours con- 
the orders of his commanders. formiment aux ordres de ses chefs. 

To adapt to, adapter d. 

We ought to know how to adapt On doit adapter ses gouts aux cir- 
our nature to circumstances. Constances. 

To addict one's self to, s'adonner a. 

He addicts himself to drinking and II s'adonne a la boisson et au jeu. 
gambling. 



REGIMEN OP VERBS. 713 

To adhere to, adherer a. 

I adhere to the opinion of your T adhere aux opinions de votre pere. 

father. 

In opening his body, they found En ouvrant son corps, on trouvaque 

that his lungs adhered to the ribs. les poumons adheraient aux cotes. 

To admire, s'etonner de. 

I admire your courage and presence Je m'etonne de votre courage et de 
of mind. votre presence d'esprit. 

To admonish of, avertir de. 

I admonish him of his faults, but Je Yavertis de ses fautes, mais il ne 
he does not care much about it. s'en soucie gueres. 

To adorn with, orner de. 

My room is adorned with handsome Ma chambre est ornte de superbes 

pictures. tableaux. 

I have adorned my gallery with J'ai orne" ma galerie de tableaux 

magnificent paintings. magnifiques. 

To adorn with, orner avec. 

Your parlour is adorned with taste, Votre salon est orne avec gout, avec 
with splendor. splendeur. 

To advert to, faire allusion a. 

Why did you advert to me in your Pourquoi avez-vous fait allusion a 
discourse ? moi dans votre discours ? 

To advise, conseiller a. 

I advised your brother not to go out Je conseillai a votre frere de ne pas 
in such weather. sortir par un tel temps. 

To advise with, se conseiller avec. 

We advised with your lawyer about Nous nous sommes consulUs avec 
your case. votre avocat sur votre affaire. 

To agree to, convenir de. 

We have agreed to the terms of the Nous sommes convenus des termes 
bargain. du marche. 

To aim at, viser a. 

He aims at being called a witty II vise au titre d'homme d'esprit. 
man. 

To alienate from, aliener de. 

You have alienated your family from Vous avez alitni votre famille de 
me. moi. (Not used.) 

To alight from, descendre de. 

We alighted from our carriage at Nous descendimes de notre voiture a 
the door of the church. la porte de l'eglise. 

60* 



714 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

To alight on, descendre sur. 

We alighted on the road, in going Nous descendimes sur la route, en 
to your house. allant chez vous. 

To animadvert on, faire des observations sur. 

Where is the necessity of animad- Ou\ est la necessite de faire des ob- 
verting on every thing ? servations sur tout ? 

To annoy with, nuirepar. 

He annoys me with his continual II me nuit par ses observations re- 
remarks on my character. petees sur mon caractere. 

To appeal from, to, appeler, a . . . de. 

I shall appeal from this sentence to J'appellerai au roi de cette sentence, 
the king. 

To appear to, paraitre a. 

It appears to me that you are II me (a moi) parait que vous avez 
wrong. tort. 

To appear with, paraitre avec. 

We appeared with extraordinary Nous parumes avec une splendeur 
splendor. extraordinaire. 

To appear at, paraitre a. 

He appeared at the window when II parut a la fenetre quand nous 
we came. vinmes. 

To appear to be, paraitre de. 

You appear to be in a very bad hu- Vous paraisses de bien mauvaise hu- 
mor, meur. 

To appertain to, apparienir a. 

It appertains to a rich man to be II appartienta un hommeriche d'etre 
generous. genereux. 

To appoint to, nommer a. 

The king has appointed me to the Le roi m ? a nommi a la dignite de 
office of first chamberlain. grand chambellan. 

To apprehend from, craindre de. 

A blow in the dark is all I appre- Tout ce que je crains delui, c'est un 
hend from him. coup dans l'ombre. 

To apprize of, informer de. 

The newspapers have apprized me Les journaux m'ont informe de vo- 
of your misfortune. tre malheur. 

To apprize of, prevenir de. 

Your father has apprized me of your Votre pere m'a privenu de votre 
departure. depart. 



REGIMEN OF VERBS. 715 

To apprize of, avertir de. 

A constable has apprized me of the Un constable m'a averti du danger 
danger I am exposed to. que je cours. 

To argue from, raisonner aVapres. 

I argue from positive facts. Je raisonne d'aprbs des faits cer- 

tains. 

To arrive at, arriver a. 

We arrived at a conclusion this Nous sommes arrives ce matin a une 
morning. conclusion. 

To ask of, demander a. 

I asked of the king the pardon of J'ai demandi au roi le pardon demon 
my friend. ami. 

To ask of, demander de. 

All I ask of you is to go and hear Tout ce que je demande de vous, 
our minister. c'est d'aller entendre notre minis- 

tre. 

To ask after, demander des nouvelles de. 

I asked this morning after you and J'ai demandf ce matin des nouvelles 
your sister. de vous et de votre soeur. 

To assent to, consentir a. 
He has assented to our propositions. II a consenti a nos propositions. 

To assimilate to, rendre semblable a. 

His conduct has assimilated him to Sa conduite l'a rendu semblable a 
a brute. une brute. 

To assist with, assister de, or aider de. 

I have assisted that man with my J'ai assist^, on. aide", cet homme de 
money and advice. mon argent et de mes avis. 

To associate with, s'associer avec. 

To associate with honest people is a S'associer avec les honnetes gens est 
sure way of saving one's reputa- un sur moyen de conserver sa re- 
tion. putation. 

To associate with, s'associer a. 

I have associated with him in this Je me suis associi a lui dans cette 
good work. bonne ceuvre. 

To atone for, expier. (No preposition.) 
He has atoned for his faults. II a expie ses fautes. 

To attend to, faire attention a. 

Be so kind as to attend to my af- Ayez la bonte de faire attention eb 
fairs during my absence. mes affaires pendant mon absence. 



716 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

To attend to, Scouter. (No preposition.) 

I shall attend to the sermon on Sun- J'irai ecouter le sermon Dimanche. 
day. 

To avail one's self of, profiter de. 

I shall avail myself of the first oppor- Je profiterai de la premiere occasion 
tunity to go and see you. pour aller vous voir. 

To avenge one's self on, se venger sur . . . de. 

This man avenges himself on socie- Cet homme se venge sur la societe 
ty for the wrongs of fortune. des torts de la fortune. 

To avenge on or upon, venger sur. 

I shall avenge on, or upon, you the Je venger -ai sur vous le crime de 
crime of your family. votre famille. 

To awe with, tenir en crainte par, or respect par. 

TJe tiendrai cet homme en crainte par 
I will awe that man with the idea of) l'idee de 1'echaffaud. 
the scaffold. j Je tiendrai cet homme en respect par 

L l'idee de 1'echaffaud. 

To awe into, forcer a (by fear). 
I will awe that child into obedience. Jeforcerai cet enfant a l'obeissance. 



2004. — B. 

To bait with, amorcer de, avec. 

He baits us with sweet words. II nous amorce de, or avec de, 

douces paroles. 

To balk of, tromper dans son espoir de. 

I have balked him of his profits. hmt Je l'ai trompe" dans son espoir de be- 
nefices. 

To bargain for, marchander. (No preposition.) 

Your wife bargained much for these Votre ferame a beaucoup marchandd 
silks. ces soies. 

To bargain for, stipuler pour. 

I have bargained for you, that you J'ai stipule" pour vous que vous n'au- 
should go without expense riez rien a payer le long de la 
over the road. route. 

To bark at, aboyer apres. 

Why do your dogs bark at me eve- Pourquoi vos chiens aboient-ih 
ry time I pass your house ? apres moi quand je passe devant 

chez vous ? 



REGIMEN OF VERBS. 717 

To bathe in, baigner de. 

Your wife was bathed in tears Votre femme etait baignie de larmes 
when I came in. quand j'entrai. 

To bathe with, arroser avec. 

You must bathe your wound with II faut arroser votre blessure avec de 
spirits. l'esprit de vin. 

To bawl at, crier apres. 

Why do you bawl at me when I Pourquoi criez vous apres moi quand 
am passing along ? je passe ? 

To beautify with, embellir de. 

This garden is beautified with mag- Ce jardin est embelli de fleurs et <f ar- 
nificent trees and flowers. bres magnifiques. 

To be beautified by, etre embelli par. 

A parlour is beautified by the pres- Un salon est embelli par la presence 
ence of ladies. des femmes. 

To beckon to, faire signe de la main a. 

I beckoned to the officer when we Je fis signe de la main a l'officier 
crossed the square. quand nous traversames la place. 

To bedaub with, barbouiller de. 

Why is your face bedaubed with Pourquoi votre figure est-elle bar- 
black ? bouillie de noir ? 

To bedeck or to bedight, orner de. 

They have bedecked, or bedighted, lis ont orn6 leurs fenetres de ri- 
their windows with a magnificent deaux magnifiques. 
set of curtains. 

To bedew with, arroser de. 

Her face was bedewed with tears. Elle avait la figure arros6e de larmes. 

To beg of, demander (avec priere) a. 

I begged of your father to let you Je demandai {avec pribre) a votre 
go with me. pere de vous laisser venir avec 

moi. 

To beg for, demander (avec priere) . 

I begged for your hand, but your Je demandai {avec priere) votre 
mother refused me. main, mais votre mere me refusa. 

To behave to, se comporter envers or se conduire envers. 

[" Je me suis toujours comport^ envers 
I always behaved to him with great J lui avec bonte. 
kindness. ) Je me suis toujours conduit envers 

(_ lui avec bonte. 



718 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

To believe in, croire a or en. 

To believe in God is not sufficient Croire en, or a, Dieu ne suffit pas 
for our salvation. pour notre salut. 

To belong to, ajppartenir a. 

This palace belongs to the king of Ce palais appartient au roi de 
France. France. 

To benumb with, engourdir de, par, or glacer de, par. 

TMes mains sont engourdies de or par 

My hands are benumbed with cold. ^ 7v/r fefr01 ?" . 7 , , 7 

J ] Mes mams sont glace es de on par le 

L froid. 

To bereave of, priver de. 

Death bereaved him of all his re- La mort 1'a prive de tous ses pa- 
lations. rents. 

To bespangle with, orner de (comme avec des paillettes) . 

The dress of this actress is bespan- La robe de cette actrice est ornie 
gled with gold and silver. e?'or et d'argent. 

To bespatter with, couvrir de, or Sclabousser. 

These carriages have bespattered i Ces voitures m'ont couvert de boue. 
my dress with mud. \ Ces voitures m'ont eclaboussd. 

To bestow upon, donnera. 

I shall bestow upon my daughter je donnerai h ma fille touts les tal- 
all the accomplishments I can. ents que je pourrai. 

To bestow upon, conferera. 

The president has bestowed a very Le president a confire cl votre fils 
great favor upon your son. une bien haute faveur. 

To blame for, blamer de. 

You are much blamed for your On vous blame fort de vos bontes 
kindness to me. pour moi. 

To bless with, rendre heureux par le don de. 

I have been blessed with a good son. J'ai ete rendu heureux par le don 

d'un bon fils. 

To be blind to, s'aveugler sur. 

He is blind to the faults of his chil- II saveugle sur les defauts de ses 
dren. enfants. 

To blush at, rougir de. 
I blush at his impudence. Je rougis de son impudence. 



REGIMEN OF VERBS. 719 

To blush for, rougir de. 

I blush for your shameful conduct. Je rougis de votre conduite hon- 

teuse. 

To blush with, rougir de. 

I blush with shame at the sight of Je rougis de honte a la vue de cet 
this man. homme. 

To board at or with, vivre en pension chez or avec. 
I board at or with Mrs. . Je suis en pension chez Mde. . 

To board at . . . with, vivre en pension chez . . . avec, 

I board at Mrs. , with Miss . Je suis en pension chez Mde. — , 

avec M'lle. . 

To boast of, se vanter de. 

This man boasts of every one's Cet homme se vante de l'amitie de 
friendship. tout le monde. 

To border on, confiner a. 

Your house borders on mine. Votre maison confine a la mienne. 

(Not in use.) 

To border on, approcher de. 

Your conduct borders on impudence. Votre conduite approche de l'impu- 

dence. 

To brag of, se vanter de. 
He brags of his love affairs. II se vante de ses affaires d'amour. 

To breakfast on, dejeuner de or avec. 

I breakfast on eggs, cutlets, and but- Je dtjeune (de not used) avec des 
ter. oeufs, des cottelettes et du beurre. 

I have breakfasted with a good ap- J'ai d'ejeuni de bon appetite, 
petite. 

To burden with, charger de (a load). 

You burdened me with such a load Vous m'avez chargd eTun tel far- 
that I could hardly walk. deau que je peux a peine marcher. 

To burn with, bruler de. 

I burn with love for that lady. Je br&le d'amour pour cette femme. 

To burst with, crever de. 

When I hear such nonsense, X can- Quand yentends de telles sottises, 
not help bursting with rage. je ne peux m'impecher de crever de 

rage. 



720 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

2005. — C 

To care for, se soucier de. 

I do not care for those who do not Je me sonde fort peu de ceux qui ne 
care for me. se soucient pas de moi. 

To carp at, critiquer. 

Carping at every one does not make A critiquer tout le monde, on se fait 
friends. peu d'amis. 

To case with, enchasser de. 

The king gave me a snuff-box Le roi m'a donne une tabatiere en- 
cased with diamonds. chassee de diamants. 

To cast at, jeter a. 

If you don't hold your tongue, I Si vous ne vous taisez pas, je vous 
will cast a bottle at your head. jette une bouteille a la tete. 

To cast into, jeter dans or a. 

After having read your letter, he Apres avoir lu votre lettre, il la 
cast it into the fire. jetta dans le feu, or au feu. 

To caution against, prevenir de, or mettre en garde contre. 

f Je vous avals privenu des mauvais 

I had cautioned you against the | desseins de votre ami pretendu. 

evil designs of your pretended^ Je vous mis en garde contre les mau- 

friend. | vais desseins de votre ami pre- 

(_ tendu. 

To cavil at, trouver a redire a. 

That is an ugly disposition, which C'est une disposition iacheuse que 
is inclined to cavil at every thing. celle qui nous porte a trouver a 

redire a tout. 

To cement by, cimenter par. 

The union of France and Spain L'union de la France et de l'Es- 
has been cemented by alliances. pagne a ete cimentie par des al- 
liances. 

To cement with, by, cimenter de. 

The ties existing between us are Les liens qui nous unissent sont 
cemented with blood and tears. cimenti de sang et de larmes. 

To charge with, charger de. 

I have charged my son with a mes- Tai charge mon fils cPun message 
sage for you. pour vous. 



REGIMEN OF VERBS. 721 

To charm with, charmer par. 

Your daughter charmed us with Votre fille nous a charmis par la 
the grace of her manners. grace de ses manieres. 

To be charmed with, etre charme de. 

We have been charmed with the Nous avons tie charmes du caractere 
good nature of your children. aimable de vos enfants. 

To be charmed with, etre charme par. 

We have been charmed with the Nous avons He charmis paries ac- 
delightful sounds of your voice. cents melodieux de votre voix. 

To cheat out of, escroquer. 

This rogue cheated me out of my Ce conquin m'a escroque mon ar- 
nioney. gent. 

To checker with, bigarrer de. 

You have checkered the walls of Vous avez bigarre' les mursde votre 
your house with queer colors. maison de singulieres couleurs. 

To cheer with, egayer par. 

Our room is cheered with the sight Notre chambre est kgaybe par la 
of the beautiful country. vue d'un magnifique paysage. 

To claim of, reclamer de or demander a. 

Go and claim of my lawyer the pa- Allez reclamer de mon avocat les 
pers which I intrusted to him. papiers que je lui ai confies (de- 

mander a.) 

To clap on, mettre (d la hate.) 

Clap on your cloak and run to catch Mettez votre manteau et courez rat- 
the stage. trapper la voiture. 

To clasp to, serrer contre. 

When I saw my children again, I Quand je revis mes enfants, je les 
clasped them to my heart. serrai contre mon cceur. 

To cleanse from, purifier de. 

The medicine which I took last Les remedes que j'ai pris le prin- 
spring cleansed my blood from cems dernier, ont purifie' mon 
all its impurities. sang de toutes ses impuretes. 

To clear of, purger de. 

The police has cleared the city La police a purge la ville de touts 
of all the rogues. les malfaiteurs. 

To clear of, debarrasser de. 

We must clear the apartments of II faut debarrasser les appartements 
the furniture, for the ball. de leurs meubles, pour le bal. 

61 



722 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

To clog with, embarrasser de. 

Why clog yourself with such a Pourquoi vous embarrasser cPun si 
heavy cloak ? grand manteau ? 

To clothe in, revttir de, or habiller en. 

[ Qui est ce grand homme revetu de 
Who is that tall man clothed in ! noir. 
black ? j Qui est ce grand homme habilU en 

^ or de noir. 

To cloy with, rassasier de. 

I have eaten so much game that I J'ai mange tant de gibier que fen 
am cloyed with it. suis rassasie. 

To comment on, comm enter sur. 

After having commented on this Apres avoir commenti sur cette af- 
affair we dropped it. faire nous l'avons abandonnee. 

To compare to, comparer a. 

Why do you compare me to such Pourquoi me comparez-xous a de 
persons ? telles gens ? 

To compare with, comparer avec. 

Take these stuffs, compare them Prenez ces etoffes, comparez les, 
with each other, and make your les unes avec les autres, et faites 
choice. un choix. 

To complain of, se plaindre de. 

Complaining of one's fate does not Se plaindre de son sort ne rend pas 
make one happier. l'homme plus heureux. 

To compel to, forger a. 

I shall compel you to give up your Je saurai vous forcer a l'abandon 
doctrines. de vos doctrines. 

To compliment on, faire des compliments sur. 

To please you I should have to II faudrait pour vous plaire que je 
compliment you on your pretty vous fsse des compliments sur vo- 
face. trejolie figure. 

To comply with, acquiescer a. 

If you comply with my wishes, you Si vous acquiescez a- mes desirs, 
will make me the happiest of vous me rendrez le plus heureux 
men. des hommes. 

To compute at, evaluer a. 

I compute your house at ten thou- Vevalue votre maison a dix mille 
sand dollars. gourdes. 



REGIMEN OF VERBS. 723 

To conceal from, cacher a. 

A well bred young lady does not Une jeune fille bien elevee ne cache 
conceal any thing from her rien a sa mere, 
mother. 

To conceal from, derober a. 

We ought not to conceal any thing Nous ne devons rien de'rober a la 
from our parents. connoissance de nos parents. 

To conclude from, conclure de. 

I conclude from your arguments Je conclus de vos arguments que 
that we do not belong to the nous n'appartenons pas au meme 
same party. parti. 

To concur with, etre d'accord avec. 

I concur with you as to the merits Je suis d'accord avec vous sur le 
and virtues of Washington. me rite et les vertus de Washing- 

ton. 

To condole in, prendre part a la douleur de. 

I condole in the grief of your fam- Je prends pari a la douleur de votre 
ily on the occasion of the death famille a l'occasion de la mort 
of your good father. de votre bon pere. 

To condole with, pleurer avec. 

You have sustained a very great Vous avez fait une grande perte, et 
loss, and I shall come and con- je viendrai la pleurer avec vous. 
dole with you. 

To conduce to, contribuer a. 

The peace of the soul conduces to La paix de l'ame contribue au bon- 
the real happiness of man. heur reel de l'homme. 

To confer on, confer er a. 

The French nation has conferred Le peuple Francais a confe'ri les 
the last honors on the memory derniers honneurs a la memoire 
of Napoleon. de Napoleon. 

To confide in, se confer a. 

A Christian confides in the Al- Le Chretien se conjie a la Provi- 
miglity, and does not fear eterni- dence, et ne craint point l'eter- 
ty. nite. 

To confide in, se reposer sur. 

A father who confides in his chil- Le pere qui se repose sur ses en- 
dren for his old age sometimes fants du soin de ses vieux jours 
makes a sad mistake. commet quelquefois une cruelle 

meprise. 

To confirm to, conjirmer a. 

I have confirmed to your friends J'ai confirme' a vos amis la nouvelle 
the news of your arrival. de votre arrivee. 



724 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

To conform to, se conformer a. 

A well bred man conforms always Un homrae bien eleve se conforme 
to the rules of society. toujours aux usages de la so- 

ciete. 

To confront with, confronter avec. 

The judge confronted the defend- Le juge confronta l'accuse avec ses 
ant with his accusers and ac- denonciateurs et reconnut son 
knowledged his innocence. innocence. 

To connect with, joindre a. 

He connects impudence with cow- II joint l'impudence a la lachete. 
ardice. 

To connect with, Her a. 

Gambling and stealing are con- Le jeu et le vol sont lies fun a Vau- 
nected with each other by the ire par la nature meme de ces 
very nature of these crimes. crimes. 

To connive at, fermer les yeux sur. 

A mother too often connives at her Une mere ferine trop souvent les 
children's faults. yeux sur les defauts de ses en- 

fa nts. 

To consecrate to, consacrer a. 

The ancients consecrated their Lesanciens consacraientle u rs filles 
daughters to their gods. aux dieux. 

To consent to, consentir a. 

I consent to the marriage provided Je consensau mariage pourvu que 
my daughter loves your son. votre fils soit aime de ma fille. 

To consider, rtjlechir a, or prendre en consideration. 

You will consider this proposition Vous ri/lichirez a cette affaire et 
and tell me your mind about m'en direz votre opinion, vous 
it. prendez cette affaire en conside- 

ration et, &e. 

To consign to, consigner a. 

I have consigned to your house J'ai consigns d votre maison cinq 
five hundred bales of cotton. cents bales de coton. 

To consist of, consister en. 

My house consists of twenty rooms Ma maison consiste en vingt chanj- 
and a kitchen. bres et une cuisine. 

To consist of, eire compose de. 

This periodical consists of a num- Ce receuil est compose cfun certain 
ber of select pieces from differ- nombre de morceaux choisis de 
ent authors. differents auteurs. 



REGIMEN OP VERBS. 725 

To console in, consoler de, par. 

I shall try to console you in your Je tacberai de vous consoler de vos 
trouble by my good counsels. chagrins par de bons conseils. 

To constrain to, constraindre a. 

I shall constrain you to repentance Je vous contraindrai au repentir 
by the severity of the chastise- par la severite du chatiment. 
ment. 

To consult about, consulter sur, touchant. 

Let us go and consult our lawyer Allons consulter notre avocat, sur 
about our difficulties. or touchant nos differends. 

To contaminate with, corrompre avec, par. 

Voltaire has contaminated many Voltaire a corrompu bien des gens 
with his philosophical principles. avec or par ses principes philoso- 

phiques. 

To contend with, disputer a. 

Why have you contended with my Pourquoi avez vous dispute cette 
sister about this piece of land ? piece de terre d, ma sasur. 

To contend with, disputer avec. 

I shall contend with you to the last, Je disputerai avec vous jusqu'a mon 
about the truth of your faith. dernier soupir la verite de votre 

foi. 

To contest with, contester a. 

Napoleon contested with the old Napoleon contesta a l'ancienne 
nobility the right to marry their noblesse le droit de marier ses 
daughters as they pleased. filles comme elle l'entendait. 

To contest with, contester avec. 

Why contest with me the validity Pourquoi contester avec moi la va- 
of this title ? lidite de ce titre. 

To contrast with, contraster avec. 

The sombre shade of this forest L'ombrage de cette foret contraste 
contrasts with the beauty of the avec la beaute du paysage. 
landscape. 

To contribute towards, contribuer d. 

The religion of Jesus Christ con- La religion du Christ contribue au 
tributes towards the happiness bonheur de l'humanite. 
of the human race. 

To contribute to, contribuer envers. 

To contribute to the poor has never Contribuer envers les pauvres n'a 
ruined any body. jamais mine personne. 

61* 



726 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

To converse on, converser sur. 

To converse on politics is a miser- Converser sur la politique est une 
able way of spending time. pauvre maniere de passer le 

terns. 

To converse about, parler de. 

We have conversed about the Ore- Nous avons parU du territoire de 
gon territory and wish to go there. POregon et nous desirons y aller. 

To convert to, converter a. 

I have converted many Indians to J'ai converti plus d'un Indien a la 
the Christian faith. foi Chretienne. 

To convict of, convaincre de. 

Alibau has been convicted of hav- Alibau a ete convaincu af'avoir at- 
ing attempted the king's life. tente a la vie du roi. 

To convince of, convaincre de. 

I am so convinced of the truth of Je suis si convaincu de la verite de 
my political faith that I am ready ma foi politique que je suis pret 
to die for it. a mourir pour elle. 

To cool, or grow cold to, se refroidir sur. 

My protectors begin to cool or Mes protecteurs commencent a se 
grow cold to my interests. refroidir swrmes interets. 

To cope with, lutter contre. 

To cope with misfortune is a sign Savoir lutter contre le malheur est 
of great moral courage. une preuve de grand courage 

moral. 

To cope with, contester avec. 

We coped with our neighbour for Nous avons conteste avec nos voi- 
years without success. sins pendant des annees sans 

succes. 

To correspond with, correspondre d. 

This window corresponds to that Cette fenetre correspond a celle de 
of the left wing. Paile gauche. 

To correspond with, correspondre avec, sur. 

I correspond regularly with your Je corresponds regulierement avec 
family on your affairs. votre famille sur vos affaires. 

To corrupt with, corrompre avec, par. 

England corrupted Andre with her L'Angleterre corrompit Andre avec 
money and promises of honors. son or et par des promesses 

d'honneurs. 

To cover with, couvrir de. 
My house was covered with thatch. Ma maison etait couverte de chaume. 



REGIMEN OF VERBS. 727 

To cram with, bourrer de, or gorger de. 

This woman crams her children Cette femme bourre or gorge ses 
with food so as to kill them. enfants de nourriture de maniere 

a les tuer. 

To crave for, demander a, (with supplication.) 

The Countess * * * craved for an La Comtesse * * * demanda a, 
introduction to the king in order voir le roi dans l'espoir de sauver 
to save her husband's life. la vie de son mari. 

To cringe, to crouch to, ramper, s'abaisser servilement devant. 

Courtiers cringe or crouch before Les courtisans rampent, s'abaissent 
kings to get one of their smiles. sei-vilement devant les rois, dans 

l'espoir d'en obtenir un sourire. 

To crowd with, remplir de. 

The concert room was crowded La salle de concert etait remplie 
with the most fashionable audi- des personnes les plus a la mode, 
ence. 

To crown with, couronner de. 

Christ was crowned with thorns Le Christ fut couronne d'epines 
before being brought to execution. avant d'etre conduit au supplice. 

To cry for, pleurer pour. 

If you cry for nothing I will make Si vous pleurez pour rien, je vous 
you cry for something. ferai pleurer pour quelque chose. 

To cry after, pleurer pour avoir quelque chose. 

Children often cry after things Les enfants pleurent souvent pour 
which they do not care for a des objets dont ils ne se soucient 
moment after. plus aussitot qu'ils les ont. 

To cry after, pleurer apres. 

Give that child the doll which he Donnez a cette enfant la poupee 
cries after. apres laquelle il pleure . 

To cry with ... at, pleurer de . . . en. 

I cried with rage at receiving such Je pleural de rage en recevant un 
an affront. tel affront. 

To cumber with, embarrasser de. 

Do not cumber me with all your Ne itfembarrassez pas de toutes vos 
rags, I have no room for them. guenilles, je n'ai pas de place 

pour elles. 

To cure of, guerir de. 

Your good doctor has cured me of Yotre bon docteur m'a gueri de 
ray dreadful disease. mon horrible maladie. 



728 FRENCH GRAMMAR 

2006. — D. 
To dare to, defier a, provoquer a. 

Why dare me to fight ? you cannot ( Pour( l uoi me dS ^% au t combat ? vous 
resist me. < ne pouvez me resistor. 

( Pourquoi me provoquer au, &c. 

To dart at, lancer a. 

The stone darted at the head of La pierre que David lanca a la tete 
Goliah by David was guided by de Goliath etait dirigee par la 
the hand of God. main de Dieu. 

To dart on, lancer sur. 

I admire the skill with which In- J 'admire l'adresse avec laquelle les 
dians dart their arrows on their Indiens lancent leurs javelots sur 
enemies. leurs ennemis. 

To date from, dater de. 

We received yesterday your letter Nous recumes hier votre lettre 
dated from Paris. datie de Paris. 

To dazzle with, eblouir de. 

Our eyes were dazzled with the Nos yeux etaient iblouis de Teclat 
brilliancy of the lights. des lumieres. 

To deafen with, assourdir par, avec. 

You deafen me with your infernal Vous m'assourdissez par or avec 
music. votre infernale musique. 

To deafen with, assourdir de. 

It is useless to deafen me with your II est inutile de m' 'assourdir de vos 
grumblings, I do not notice them. plaintes, je n'y fais pas attention. 

To deal in, faire le commerce de. 

He deals in silks, in cloth, and fancy II fait le commerce des soies, des 
goods. draps et des articles de fantaisie. 

To decide on, decider de. 

Who gave you the right of deciding Qui vous a donne le droit de d&ci- 
on my fate ? der de mon sort ? 

To decide on, se decider a (before a verb), se decider pour 

(before a noun) . 

When your father told us to choose Quand votre pere nous ordonna de 
our abode, we decided on living in choisir le lieu de notre residence, 
the country. nous nous diciddmes pour la cam- 

pagne. 

To deck with, orner de. 

My wife likes decking her parlour Ma femme aime a orner son salon 
with flowers. de fleurs. 



My clerk has deducted from your 
account fifty dollars for your 
board. 



REGIMEN OF VERBS. 729 

To decorate with, decorer de. 

The Catholics decorate their church- Les Catholiques decorent leurs e- 

es with handsome paintings. glises de tableaux magniflques. 

To deduct from, deduire de, retrancher de. 

fMon commis a dkduit cinquante 
gourdes de votre compte pour 
votre pension. 
Mon commis a retranche cinquante 
gourdes de, &c. 

To deject with, attrister de. 

Why deject me with such sad news ? Pourquoi m' attrister de si penibles 

nouvelles ? 

To delight with, charmer par. 

A woman delights us with the La femme nous char me davantage 
charms of her mind more than by par les graces de son esprit que 
the charms of her beauty. par ceux de sa personne. 

To delight in, se plaire a. 

My son delights more in hunting Mon fils se plait plus a la chasse 
than studying. qu'a l'etude. 

To deliver from, delivrer de. 

Perseus delivered Andromeda from Persee dilivra Andromede des fers 
the fetters with which she was qui la tenaient enchainee au ro- 
chained to the rock. cher. 

To deluge with, inonder de. 

The French revolutionists deluged Les revolutionaires Francjais inon- 
the country with their pernicious derent le pays de leurs ecrits per- 
writings. nicieux. 

To demand of, demander de, exiger de. 

I demand of you an apology forf Je demande & yous une reparation 
your insult^ language', j r ^]TZl°X T^T. 

To denounce, parler contre. 

I denounced his character before the Je parlai contre son caractere devant 
whole congregation. toute la congregation. 

To depend upon, dependre de. 

A wife always depends upon her La femme dipend toujours de son 
husband. mari. 

To depend upon, compter sur. 

I depend upon you to get me out of Je compte sur vous pour me tirer 
my trouble. d'affaire. 



730 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

To deprive of, priver de. 

The revolution of July has deprived La revolution de Julliet a prive" bien 
a great many of their living. des gens de leurs moyens d'exist- 

ence. 

To depurate or depure from, purifier de. 

Sarsaparilla depurates or depures La salspareille purifie le sang de 
the blood from the acidity of the l'acrete de ses humeurs. 
humours. 

To derive from, deriver de, tirer de. 

Americans derive their origin from Les Americains derivent or tirent 
the old puritans of England. leur origine des anciens puritains 

de l'Angleterre. 

To derogate from, deroger a. 

The conduct of that man derogates La conduite de cet homme le fait 
from the nobleness of his ances- deroger h la noblesse de ses an- 
tors. etres. 

To descant upon, s'etendre sur. 

It is ridiculous to descant upon II est ridicule de s'clendre sur des 
trifles when time is so precious. niaiseries, lorsque le terns est aussi 

precieux. 

To descend from, descendre de. 

To hear that man one would think A entendre cet homme on dirait 
that he was descended from the qu'il descend des cotes d'Adam. 
ribs of Adam. 

To desist from, se desister de. 

If you desist from the prosecution of Si vous vous disistez de votre 
your complaint I will pay you plainte, je vous donnerai cinquante 
fifty dollars. gourdes. 

To despair of, desespSrer de. 

I despair of this young man, he is desespere de ce jeune homme, il est 
lost for ever. a jamais perdu. 

To despair at, se dSsesperer de. 

What is the use of despairing at the A quoi bon se dksespirer de la perte 
less of one's fortune. de sa fortune. 

To destine for, destiner a. 

We destined our son for the church, Nous destinions notre fils a l'eglise, 
but he enlisted in the army. mais il s'est engage dans l'armee. 

To deter from, detourner de. 

We were deterred from doing it by Nous fumes ditournis de ce parti 
the advice of friends. par les conseils de nos amis. 

To determine on, se determiner a. 

I at last determined on starting for Je me suis enfin determine h partir 
the Oregon territory. pour l'Oregon. 



REGIMEN OF VERBS. 731 

To detract from, retrancher de, rebattre de. 

Now that you have lost your for- Maintenant que vous avez perdu 
tune you must detract from your votre fortune, il faut retrancher de 
pride. or rdbattre de votre orgueil. 

To devolve on, retomber sur. 

Now that your father is dead, the Maintenant que votre pere est mort, 
responsibility of the family de- la responsabilite de la famille re- 
volves on you. tombe sur vous. 

To die of, mourir de. 

Count Ugolin and his children died Le comte Ugolin et ses enfants 
of hunger in prison. moururent de faim dans leur pri- 

son. 

To die with, mourir de. 

To die with love is not a common Mourir d'amour n'est pas un fait 
occurrence in our days. commun de nos jours. 

To differ from, differer de. 

Voltaire differs from the other phi- Voltaire differe des autres philoso- 

losophers of the eighteenth cen- phes du dix-huitieme siecle, par 

tury, in having possessed greater une plus grande perversite d'e- 

perversity of mind. sprit. 

To dine on, diner de (not used), diner avec. 

I think a man may dine well on Je pense qu'un homme peut diner 
soup, roast beef, and potatoes. (de) avec de la soupe, du bceuf 

roti, et des pommes de terre. 

To disable from, mettre hors diktat de. 
I disabled him from doing wrong. Je Vai mis hors d'itat de mal faire. 

To disappoint of, tromper Vatlente on Von est de. 

We have been disappointed in our Nous avons ett trompes dans Vat- 
expectations of your arrival. tente ou nous etions de votre ar- 

rivee. 

To disburden of, decharger de. 

Why don't you disburden this Pourquoi ne dechargez-vous pas ce 
wagon of its load ? wagon de ses marchandises i 

To disburden of, soulager de. 
Praying disburdens the soul of many La priere soulage Fame de bien 
troubles. des peines. 

To discharge from, renvoyer de. 

I have discharged my clerk from my J'ai renvoye mon clerc de chez moi. 
employ. 



732 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



To discourage from, detourner de. 

My good counsels have discouraged Mes bons avis ont detourne votre 
your friend from prosecuting his ami de son entreprise temeraire. 
rash enterprise. 

To discourse on, discourir sur. 

We discoursed last night on all Nous avons discouru hier soir sur 
subjects. toutes sortes de sujcts. 

To discourse about, s'entretenir de. 

Your father and I have discoursed Votre pere et moi nous sommes 
about your marriage. entretenus de votre mariage. 

To discriminate between, distinguer entre. 

Before deciding we ought to dis- Avant de juger il faut distinguer 
criminate between the merits of entre le me rite des parties, 
the parties. 

To discumber or disencumber from, debarrasser de. 

The mayor has ordered the mer- Le maire a ordonne aux negociants 

chants to discumber or disencum- de debarrasser les trottoirs de 

ber the sidewalks from their leurs marchandises. 
goods. 

To disengage from, degager de. 

Your bad conduct has disengaged Votre mauvaise conduite m'a de- 
me from my obligations towards gag* de mes obligations envers 
you. vous. 

To disentangle from, debarrasser de, degager de. 

One of my workmen happily came Un de mes ouvriers vint heureuse- 
and disentangled me from under ment me debarrasser de or di- 
the wheels. gager de dessous les roues. 

To disincline towards, indisposer contre. 

Your conduct towards my son has Votre conduite envers mon fils m'a 
disinclined me towards you. indispose" contre vous. 

To dispense with, se dispenser de. 

A Christian ought not to dispense Un Chretien ne doit pas se dispenser 
with going to church. d'aller a 1'eglise. 

To dispense from, exempter de. 

I dispense you from military service Je vous exempte du service militaire 
on account of your ill health. a cause de votre mauvaise sante. 

To dispose of, disposer de. 

This merchant disposes of an im- Ce marchand dispose d'un capital 
mense capital. immense. 



REGIMEN OF VERBS. 733 

To dispose to, disposer a. 

You may dispose me to indulgence Vous pouvez me disposer al'indul- 
by good and wise conduct. gence par une bonne et sage con- 

duite. 

To dispossess of, deposseder de. 

My lawyer has dispossessed me of Mon avocat m'a deposside de ma 
my fortune by his roguery. fortune par son manque d'hon- 

nete. 

To dispute about, disputer sur. 

We have disputed about these mat- Nous avons dispute" sur ces matieres, 
ters, but without being able to mais sans pouvoir nous mettre 
agree. d 'accord. 

To dissuade from, detourner de. 

I shall dissuade you from your de- Je vous dttournerai de vos projets. 
signs. 

To dissuade from, dissuader de. 

We have done every thing to dis- Nous avons fait tout au monde pour 
suade him from his projects, but le dissuader de ses projets, mais 
without success. nous avons echoue. 

To distinguish from, distinguer de. 

The duty of a judge is to devote all Le devoir d'un juge est d'user de 
his faculties to distinguish inno- tous les moyens en son pouvoir 
cence from crime. pour distinguer l'innocence du 

crime. 

To distress with, affliger de. 

I wish not to distress you with my Je ne veux pas vous affliger du recit 
own sorrow. de mes propres chagrins. 

To disturb by, with, troubler par. 

He who disturbs public worship Celui qui trouble le service div'm par 
with or by impious language des paroles impies doit 6tre chasse 
ought to be expelled. de l'eglise. 

To divert from, diverter de, detourner de. 

The treasurer has diverted the Le tresorier a diverti les fonds du 
king's money from its natural roi de leur destination naturelle. 
destination. 

To divert from, distraire de. 

Study diverts me from all my sor- L'etude me distrait de touts mes 
row. chagrins. 

62 



734 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

To divest of, depouiller de. 

The robbers have divested me of Les voleurs m'ont depouilU de mes 
my clothes and left me naked on vetements et m'ont laisse nu sur 
the road. la route. 

To do with, faire de. 
I shall never do any thing with you. Je neferai jamais rien de vous. 

To domineer over, dominer. 

This man domineers over his whole Cet homme domine toute sa famille. 
family. 

To dote on, aimer a lafolie. 

My friends dote on me and spoil me. Mes amis m'aiment a lafolie et me 

gatent. 

To dream of, rever de. 

In spite of my efforts, I dream of En depit de mes efforts, je rive de 
you every night. vous toutes les nuits. 

To dream of, songer a. 

Although you do not deserve it, I Quoique vous ne le meritiez pas, je 
cannot help dreaming of you. ne puis m'empecher de songer a 

vous. 

To drench with, abreuver de. 

I do not see the use of drenching me Je ne vois pas la necessite de m'a- 
with medicines from morning to breuver de medecines du matin au 
night. soir. 

To dress in, habiller de. 

Why do we see you constantly Pourquoi vous voyons nous toujours 
dressed in black from head to habillc de noir de la t6te aux 
foot ? pieds? 

To drink of, boire de. 

Which do you prefer, to drink of Que pre ferez -vous ? boire de ce vin 
this wine, or of the other ? ou de cet autre ? 



2007. — E. 

To ease of, soulager de. 

If you will wait for me, I will ease Si vous voulez m'attendre, je vous 
you of your burden. soulagerai de votre fardeau. 

To eat of, manger de. 

Will you eat of this leg of mutton, Voulez-vous manger de ce gigot ou 
or of this roast beef ? de ce filet de bcsuf ? 



REGIMEN OF VERBS. 735 

To embellish with, embellir de. 

We have embellished our church Nous avons embelli notre eglise de 
with handsome paintings. tableaux magnifiques. 

To emerge from, sortir de. 

Do you see that alligator emerging Voyez-vous ce crocodille sortir de 
from the water ? l'eau. 

To enchant with, enchanter par. 

Dupre always enchants me with his Dupre xa? enchante toujours par la 
fine voice. beaute de sa voix. 

To enchant with, enchante de. 

I am enchanted with your good feel- Je suis enchante de vos bons senti- 
ings towards me. ments pour moi. 

To enchase with, enchasser de. 

I will give you my portrait enchased Je vous donnerai mon portrait en- 
with precious stones. chasse" de pierres precieuses. 

To enclose with, entourer de. 

I will have my orchard enclosed Je ferai entourer mon verger rf'une 
with a handsome fence. belle palissade. 

To encroach upon, empieter sur. 

England is noted for encroaching at L'Angleterre est connue pour ernpi- 
all times upon her neighbours. iter constamment sur ses voisins. 

To encumber with, embarrasser de. 

Your counter is always encumbered Votre comptoir est toujours embar- 
with all sorts of goods. rassd de toutes sortes de mar- 

chandises. 

To endow with, doter de. 

If you endow your daughter with a Si vous dotez votre fille de cent mille 
hundred thousand dollars, I will gourdes je lui ferai epouser mon 
marry her to my son. fils. 

To endow with, douer de. 

Nature has endowed your daughter La nature a doue votre fille de ses 
with her most precious gifts. dons les plus precieux. 

To engird with, ceindre de. 

I engirded my waist with a sword Je me ceignis la taille d'une epee et 
and ran to meet the enemy. courus a l'ennemi. 

To entertain with, entretenir de. 

Your friend had better stay at home Votre ami ferait mieux de rester 
than to come and entertain me chez lui que de venir m entretenir 
with empty words. de paroles vides de sens. 



736 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

To entertain with, recevoir aver. 

We have been entertained on our Nous avons ete regus a notre arrivee 
arrival with balls, dinners, con- avec des bals, des diners, des con- 
certs, &c. certs, &c. 

To entertain with, regaler de. 

If you will come and dine with me, Si vous voulez venir diner chez moi, 
I will entertain you with the best je vous rigalerai des meilleurs de 
of my wines. mes vins. 

To envelope with, envelopper de. 

The conduct of Louis XI. was al- La conduite de Louis XL fut tou- 
ways enveloped with dark myste- jours enveloppee de sombres mys- 
ries. tdres. 

To escape from, echapper d. 

It is only by a miracle that we es- C'est par un vrai miracle que nous 
caped from death. avons echappi a la mort. 

To escape from, s'echapper de. 

Vidocq has escaped from jail more Vidocq s'est ichappi de prison plus 
than twenty times. de vingt fois. 

To estimate at, estimer a, or evaluer a. 



[Vestime la depense du Chemin de 

i J 



I estimate the cost of the Western ) fer de l'Ouest a dix millions de 
Rail-road at ten millions of dollars, j gourdes. 

[_y6valeue, &c. 

To estrange from, aliener de. 

You have estranged from me the Vous avez aliene de moi les senti- 
feelings of your family. ments de votre famille. 

To exact from, exiger de, or extorquer deor a. 

f Les medecins et les avocats exigent 
Physicians and lawyers always ex- I toujours de leurs clients plus que 
act from their clients more than<( leurs services ne valent. 
the value of their services. | Le medecins et les avocats extor- 

(_ quent de or <i, &c. 

To exculpate from, disculper de. 

I shall willingly exculpate you from je vous disculperai volontiers de vos 
your wrongs, if you sincerely re- torts si vous vous repentez sin- 
pent, cerement. 

To excuse from, excuser de. 

I excuse you from the harm which Je vous excuse du mal que vous 
you did me, on account of your m'avez fait en faveur de vos souf- 
actual sufferings. frances actuelles. 



REGIMEN OF VERBS. 737 

To exempt from, exempter de. 

They have exempted me from the On m'a exemptd du service militaire 
military service on account of my a cause de ma surdite. 
deafness. 

To exhaust with, epuiser de. 

On my return from my journey I A mon retour de voyage j'etaisd^m- 
was exhausted with fatigue. si de fatigue. 

To expatiate on, s'etendre sur. 

You expatiate too much on these Vous voasetendeztioj) sur ces points 
hard points of theology. obscurs de theologie. 

To expostulate with, faire des representations a. 

I expostulated with my father on Je jis des representations a mon pere 
account of his excessive severity. sur son excessive severite. 

To extort from, extorquer de. 

This wretch has extorted from your Ce miserable a extorqui de votre 
mother more money than he is mere plus d'argent qu'il ne vaut. 
worth. 

To extract from, extraire de. 

This sentence is extracted from the Ce passage est extrait de la Bible. 
Bible. 

To extricate from, degager de, or tirer de. 

f Votre habilete m'a d&gagi c?'un 
Your skill has extricated me from a ! grand danger. 

great danger. j Votre habilete m'a tire rf'un grand 

[_ danger. 

To exult at, se rejouir de. 

The people exult at the recovery of Le peuple se rijouit du retablisse- 
their king. ment de la same de son roi. 

To exult in, s' ' enorgueillir de. 

Your teacher exults in the improve- Votre maitre s'enorgueillit du pro- 
ment of his pupils. gres de ses eleves. 

To exult over, insulter a. 

He who exults over others' misfor- Celui que insulte au malheur des au- 
tune does not deserve a better fate tres ne merite pas un meilleur 
than theirs. sort que le leur. 



62* 



738 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

2008. — F. 

To faint with, tomber en defaillance de. 

When hunting on the Rocky Moun- Lorsque nous chassionssur les Mon- 
tains, we all fainted with thirst. tagnes Rocheuses, nous tombames 

en defaillance du besoin de boire. 

To fatigue with, fatiguer de. 

You have so much fatigued me with Vous m'avez tellement fatigue de 
your complaints, that I would not vos plaintes, que je ne veux plus 
hear you any more. entendre parler de vous. 

To feed with, nourrir de. 

If you feed your horse with rotten Si vous nourrissez votre cheval de 
hay, he will soon become broken- foin pourri, il deviendra bientot 
winded. - poussif. 

To filch from, derober a. 

It is wrong for children to think that Ces enfants ont tort de croire qu'ils 
they may, without crime, filch peuvent sans crime dirober de l'ar- 
money from their father. gent a leur pere. 

To fill with, remplir de. 

Sultan Mahmoud, by his perpetual Le Sultan Mahmoud, par ses 
wars, had filled his dominions guerres perpetuelles, avait rempli 
with ruin and desolation. l'empire persan de ruine et de de- 

solation. 

To fire at, tirer de. 

Firing at a mark is an indispensable Tirer a la cible est un exercice in- 
exercise for a soldier. dispensable pour former de bons 

soldats. 

To fire at, tirer sur. 

You must not fire at a wild boar un- II ne faut pas tirer sur un sanglier a 
less he has already passed you. moins qu'il ne vous ait deja passe. 

To fit to, ajuster a or adapter a. 

This coat of yours has not been yet Cette redingote que vous m'avez 
fitted to my size. donnee, n'a pas encore ete ajusUe 

or adaptee a ma taille. 

To fit for, rendre propre a. 

If you wish to fit this horse for the Si vous voulez rendre ce cheval pro- 
chaise, you must feed him only on pre a la chasse, il faut ne le nour- 
oats. rir que d'avoine. 

To fit for, preparer pour. 

Do you intend to fit this young lad Avez-vous l'intention de preparer ce 
for college ? jeune gar$on pour le college ? 



REGIMEN OF VERBS. 739 

To flinch from, reculer de. 

If you flinch from your bet, I shall Si vous reculez de votre pari, je Tie 
not take you for a man of honor. vous considerai plus comme 

homme d'honneur. 

To flinch from, se derober a. 

It is bad to attempt flinching from II est mal de chercher a se ddrober a 
one's obligation upon a frivolous ses obligations sous de frivoles 
excuse. pretextes. 

To fling to, jeter a. 

If you do not get out of my way, I Si vous ne vous derangez pas de 
will fling this stone at your head. mon chemin, je vous jette cette 

pierre a la tete. 

To fly at, s'elancer sur. 

Crossing my field, I perceived a En passant dans mon champ j'apper- 
rattlesnake, and he flew at me as cus un serpent a sonnettes, et il 
soon as he saw me. s'ilanqa sur moi aussitot qu'il 

me vit. 

To foam with, Scumer de. 

The sight of that monster foaming La vuedece monstre ^cwman^ </e rage 
with rage struck me with awe. me frappa de terreur. 

To force to, forcer a. 

Hunger forces the most lazy among La faim force au travail les plus pa- 
men to work. resseux. 

To fortify with, fortifier de. 

We fortified our camp with block- N ous fortifi&mes notre camp de blo- 
houses and fences of all sorts. kaus et de barrieres de toute es- 

pece. 

To free from, debar rasser de. 

Man is only freed from his duties La mort seule dibarrasse l'homme de 
by death. ses devoirs. 

To free from, exempter de. 

Money is a sure way to free one L'argent est un sur moyen de s'ex- 
from the military service. empter du service militaire. 

To freight with, charger de. 

We shall freight our next vessel Nous chargerons notre prochain na- 
with cotton for England. vire de coton pour l'Angleterre. 

To fret at, se chagriner de. 

Don't fret at the trifling faults of this Ne vous chagrinez pas des petits de- 
child, fauts de cet enfant. 



740 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

To frighten with, effrayer de. 

I have been really frightened with J'ai ete reellement effrayi de ses 
his tales about ghosts and spec- contes de spectres etde revenants. 
tres. 

To frighten with, effrayer par. 

I have frightened him with the idea Je Pai effraye par l'idee du supplice 
of the punishment which awaits qui l'attend. 
him. 

To frown at, froncer sourcil a. 

He frowns at the slightest fault. II fronce le sourcil cl la moindre 

faute. 

To frown at, regarder scverement. 

When my father frowns at me, I Quand mon pere me regarde sivere- 
tremble all over. merit, je tremble de touts mes 

membres. 

To frown on, regarder de mauvais ceil. 

I frown on any one who tampers Je regarde de mauvais ceil quiconque 
with his own conscience. capitule avec sa conscience. 

To furnish with, fournir de. 

If you wish to go to the coast of Si vous voulez aller a, la cote d'A- 

Africa, you must furnish your ves- frique, il fa.ut fournir votre navire 

sel with good guns and a strong de bons canons et d'un equipage 

crew. solide. 



2009. — G. 

To gape at, regarder avec surprise. 

What do you gape at there so much? Que regardez-vous la avec tant de 

surprise ? 

To garnish with, garnir de. 

On thanksgiving-day the masts were Le jour d'actions de graces, les mats 
spendidly garnished with wreaths etaient magnifiquement garnis de 
of flowers. couronnes et de fleurs. 

To garnish with, parer de. 

You have garnished your apart- Vous avez pare vos salons eTorne- 
ments with ridiculous ornaments. ments ridicules. 

To gaze at, regarder fixement. 

He gazed at me for a while, but did II me regarda fixement pendant quel- 
not recognize me. que tems, mais il ne me reconnut 

pas. 



REGIMEN OF VERBS. 741 

To gibe at, se moquer de. 

An infidel gibes at all that is sacred L'infidele se moque, sans rougir, de 
on earth without blushing. tout ce que est sacre sur la terre. 

To gird with, on. (See Engird.) 

To gladden with, rejouir par. 

I come to gladden you with good Je viens vous rijouir par de bonnes 
news from your family. nouvelles de votre famille. 

To gladden with, rejouir de. 

Allow me to gladden you with the Permettez que je vous rejouisse de 
intelligence of the recovery of la bonne nouvelle du retablisse- 
your son. ment de votre fils. 

To glance at, lancer un regard a. 

Did you remark how this lady has Avez-vous vu quel regard cette 
glanced at your friend ? dame a lance a votre ami. 

To glare at, regarder d'un ceil terrible. 

The king, passing through the Le roi, en traversant les apparte- 
rooms, has glared at his minis- ments, a regarde" ses ministres 
ters. d J un ail terrible. 

To glory in, se faire gloire de. 

The impious glory in blaspheming L'impie se fait gloire de blasphe- 
God. mer Dieu. 

To glow with, etre anime de. 

The American nation glows with La nation Americaine est animee de 
admiration for the memory of vifs sentiments d'admiration pour 
Lafayette. Lafayette. 

To glut with, rassasier de. 

Our landlord has glutted us so Notre hote nous a tellement ras- 
much with pork and beans that I sasies de pore aux haricots que 
can't bear the sight of them. je ne puis plus en supporter la 

vue. 

To gorge with, gorger de. 

By gorging her children with can- En gorgeanl ses enfants de bonbons 
dy as she does, your wife will comme elle le fait, votre femme 
kill them. les tuera. 

To grace with, embellir de. 

Will you do us the favor to grace Voulez-vous nous faire la grace 
our party with your presence ? d'embellir notre soiree de votre 

presence ? 

To grasp at, tdcher de saisir. 

A man who is drowning grasps at Un hornme qui se noie tdche de sat- 
anything he finds by him. sir tout ce qui vient a sa portee. 



742 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

To grasp at, tacher de s'emparer de. 

When I found I was drowning I Quand je m'appercus que j'allais 
grasped at a rope and succeeded me noyer, je idchai de m'emparer 
in catching it. d'une corde et j'y reussis. 

To grieve at, s'affliger de. 

I grieve at your sorrow and sym- Je nCaffiige de vos peines et je les 
pathize with you. partage. 

To grieve at, s'qffliger pour. 

To grieve at others' sorrows is the SPaffliger pour les peines des au- 
sign of a good heart. tres est signe d'un bon cceur. 

To grieve for, pleurer. 

This poor woman grieves for the Cette pauvre femme pleure la mort 
death of her husband and chil- de son mari et celle de ses en- 
dren. fants. 



To grumble at, murmurer de. 

grumbled suffi- Quand un 
leir chains, they son escla\ 
will, one day, rise. se rivolte. 



When people have grumbled suffi- Quand un peuple a murmure" de 
ciently long at their chains, they son esclavage assez longtems, il 



2010.— H. 

To hamper with, embarrasser de. 

Why hamper yourself with ties Pourquoi vous embarrasser de liens 
which you will not be able to que vous ne saurez plus rompre? 
break? 

To hamper with, empetrer de. 

You have hampered me with your Vous m'avez empetre' de votre fille, 
daughter, who will rid me of her ? qui m'en debarrassera ? 

To hanker after, souhaiter avec ardeur. 

I hanker after the day when I shall Je souhaite avec ardeur de voir le 
be free again. jour qui me rendra la liberte. 

To harass with, harasser de. 

This poet harasses me with his Ce poete m^harrasse de ses misera- 
miserable productions ; how can hies elucubrations ; comment 
I help it ? m'en debarrasserai-je ? 

To hearken to, ecouter a. 

A passenger on board of a ship is Un passager a bord d'un navire est 

ready to hearken to the wonders toujours pret a ecouter les mer- 

which sailors have in store for vielles que les matelots lui tien- 

him. nent en reserve. 



REGIMEN OF VERBS. 743 

To help with, aider de. 

I will help you with my credit Je vo-us aiderai de mon argent et 
and money, if you promise me to de mon credit, si vous me pro- 
follow my counsels. mettez de suivre mes avis. 

To help at, servir a table. 

This black servant helps us very Ce domestique negre seri tres bien 
well at the table. a table. 

To hesitate at, hesiter sur. 

The minister of your church hesi- Votre ministre hesiie sur chaque 
tates at every word which comes parole qui lui sort de la bouche. 
out of his mouth. 

To hide from, cacher a. 

A daughter ought to hide nothing Une fille ne doit rien cacher a sa 
from her mother. mere. 

To hinder from, empecher de. 

In spite of your faults, I cannot Malgre vos fautes je ne puis empe- 
hinder my son from loving you. cher mon fils de vous aimer. 

To hint at, faire allusion a. 

My dear friend, I rather think, that, Mon cher ami, je crois, en verite, 

speaking of humps, this lady qu'en parlant de bosses, cette 

gave a hint at that which is upon do.me faisait allusion a celle que 

your back. vous portez au dos. 

To honor with, honorer de. 

The ministers of the king have Les ministres du roi m'onf honore 
honored me with a visit. rf'une visite. 

To hunt for or after, chercher de touts cotes. 

We have been hunting after, or for, Nous vous avons cherche" de touts 
you for a week. cotes pendant une semaine entiere. 

To hurl at, lancer a. 

If you don't recall your dog, I will Si vous n'appelez pres votre chien, 
hurl a stone at him. je lui lancerai une pierre. 



2011.— I. 

To importune with, importuner de. 

Why importune me with demands Pourquoi mHmportuner de demandes 
which I cannot meet ? que je ne puis satisfaire ? 

To impose on, enimposer a. 

A child who imposes on his father Un enfant qui en impose a son pere 
is much to be blamed. est bien coupable. 



744 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

To impregnate with, impregner de. 

Blue colors are impregnated with Les couleurs bleues sont impri- 
vitriolic particles. gnhs de parties vitrioliques. 

To impress with, penetrer de . . . pour. 

You may tell your friend that I am Vous pouvez dire a votre ami que 
impressed with the deepest re- je suis penttre pour lui du plus 
spect for him. profond respect. 

To impress with, penetrer de . . . par. 

The judge has impressed me with Le magistrat m'a penetre d'admira- 
admiration by his courage. tion par son courage. 

To incite to, pousser a. 

You have incited me to this rash Vous m'avez pousse a cet acte de 
act by your wicked counsels. folie par vos mauvais conseils. 

To imprint on, imprimer sur. 

This crime has imprinted on your Ce crime a imprime sur votre front 
forehead an ineffaceable blot. une tache inneffacable. 

To imprint on, graver dans. 

Your kindness has imprinted on Vos bontes ont grave dans mon 
my heart a gratitude which will cceur une reconnaissance eter- 
last forever. nelle. 

To incommode with, incommoder par or avec. 

You incommode me greatly with Vous m'incommodez grandement 
your cigar. par or avec votre cigare. 

To increase by, augmenter de. 

Our neighbour has increased his Notre voisin a augmente sa fortune 
fortune by ten thousand dol- de dix mille gourdes depuis peu 
lars within a few years. d'annees. 

To increase by, augmenter par. 

We always may increase the com- On peut toujours augmenter son 
forts of our situation by econo- bien etre par l'economie. 
my. 

To incrust with, incruster de. 

I had not told you to incrust this Je ne vous avais pas dit dHncruster 
table with gold and silver. cette table rf'or et cfargent. 

To inculcate on, inculquer a. 

One could not too early incul- On ne saurait inculquer de trop 
cate good principles on the minds bonne heure de bons principes 
of children. aux enfants. 



REGIMEN OF VERBS. 745 

To incumber with, embarrasser de or encombrer de. 

Why incumber your apartments Pourquoi embarrasser, or encombrer 
with such an amount of costly vos appartementsd'un telle quan- 
furniture ? tite de meubles couteux? 

To induce to, porter a or exciter a. 

Your avarice has induced your son Votre avarice a porte or a excite 
to commit crimes and violence, votre fils h la violence et au 

crime. 

To indue with, doner de. 

Nature had indued Voltaire with La nature avait doui Voltaire d'un 
a hellish genius. genie infernal. 

To indulge with, accorder a. 

A good husband indulges his wife Un bon mari accorde a sa femme la 
with the gratification of all her satisfaction de toutes ses desirs 
reasonable wishes. raisonnables. 

To indulge in, se permettre. 

A man, when drunk, indulges in Un homme dans Pivresse se pennet 
acts which he regrets when so- des actes qu'il regrette quand il 
her. est sobre. 

To indulge in, s'abandonner a. 

A man who indulges in laziness is Un homme qui s'abandonne a la 
very nearly a criminal. paresse, est bien pres de devenir 

criminel. 

To inebriate with, enivrer de. 

Your servant is in the habit of in- Votre domestique a l'habitude 
ebriating mine with brandy and d'emwer le mien ePeau de vie et 
wine. de vin. 

To infatuate with, infatuer de. 

This young man is so much infat- Ce jeune homme est tellement in- 

uated with the idea of his own fatue de l'idee de son propre rae- 

merits, that his company has be- rite, que sa societe est devenue 

come intolerable. insupportable. 

To infect with, infecter de. 

The French revolution has infect- La revolution Francaise a infecti 
ed the world with the most de- le monde de principes detesta- 
testable principles. bles. 

To infer from, inferer de or conclure de. 

I infer from the ideas which you Tin/ere des or conclus des idees 
express, that you are lost for que vous ne craignez pas d'eme- 
ever. ttre que vous etes un jeune 

homme perdu. 

63 



746 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

To infest with, infester de. 

Your neighbour has infested the Votre voisin a infesU le pays de se3 
country with his importation of renards et de ses loups importes 
German foxes and wolves. d'Allemagne. 

To inflict on, infliger a. 

I told the schoolmaster to inflict a J'ai dit au maitre d'ecole d'injliger 
severe punishment on (or upon) une punition severe d, mon fils. 
my son. 

To inform of, informer de. 

England has not informed Ameri- L'Angleterre n'a pas informe 
ca of her pretensions over her 1'Amerique de ses pretentions 
vessels. sur ses navires. 

To inform against, denoncer a. 

The attorney-general has informed L'avocat general a dinonci les 
the grand jury against the news- jeunes vendeurs de journeaux au 
boys of the city. grand jury. 

To infringe on, enfreindre. 

He who infringes on the laws of his Celui qui enfreint les lois de son 
country exposes himself to be pays s'expose a etre puni par 
punished by them. elles. 

To infuse into, infuser dans. 

In order to make good cordials, you Pour faire de bonnes liqueurs il 
must let the materials infuse faut faire infuser les ingredients 
themselves into good brandy. dans de bonne eau-de-vie. 

To inherit, heriter de. 

When of age, you will inherit a A votre majorite, vous heriterez 
very large fortune. rf'une tres grande fortune. 

To initiate into, initier dans. 

I thank you for having initiated my Je vous remercie d'avoir initii mon 
son into the great mysteries of fils dans les profonds mysteres 
law. de la loi. 

To inlay with, parqueter de. 

This beautiful parlour is inlaid with Ce magnifique salon est parqueU 
mahogany and rosewood. d'acajou et de bois de palissan- 

dre. 

To inlay with, marqueter de. 

Our fathers had their furniture in- Nos peres avoient leurs meubles 
laid with the most costly foreign marqueUs des bois les plus riches, 
wood. 

To inoculate with, inoculer de. 

Our children have been inoculat- Nos enfants ont ete inocules du 
ed with virus taken from a healthy virus provenant d'un enfant sain, 
child. 



REGIMEN OF VERBS. 747 

To inquire for, demander a. 

I inquired at the grocer's for his J'ai demande a l'epicier ses plus 
best oranges. belles oranges. 

To inquire of, demander a. 

I have inquired of your servant J'ai demande h votre domestique 
how you were at home. comment on se portait chez vous. 

To inquire after, demander des nouvelles de. 

As soon as I arrived from the East, Aussitot que j'arrivai de l'est je de- 
I inquired after your wife. mandai des nouvelles de votre 

femme. 

To inquire about, s* informer de. 

I do not inquire about the feelings Je ne mHnforme pas des sentiments 
which you cherish towards me. que vous nourissez pour moi. 

To inquire into, faire des recherches sur or examiner. 

The government has sent agents Le gouvernement a envoye des 
to inquire into the pretensions of agents pour faire des recherches 
England. sur or examiner les pretentions 

de l'Angleterre. 

To insist on, insister sur. 

Do not insist on the claims which N'insistez pas sur les droits que je 
I may have on this part of the peux avoir sur cette partie de 
inheritance. l'heritage. 

To inspire with, inspirer. 

You have inspired me with the Vous m'avez inspire les plus hauts 
highest feelings of admiration sentiments d'admiration pour 
for your person. votre personne. 

To instigate to, pousser d or exciter a. 

A man who instigates others to re- Celui qui pousse or excite les au- 
bellion and plunder deserves tres a la revolte et au pillage me- 
death. rite la mort. 

To instil into, instiller dans. 

It is abominable to attempt instil- II est abominable de chercher a in- 
ling pernicious doctrines into the stiller des doctrines pernicieuses 
minds of youth. dans l'esprit de la jeuneses. 

To instruct in, instruire dans. 

I have instructed more than a hun- J'ai instruit plus de cent jeunes 
dred young ladies in the French femmes dans l'etude de la langue 
language. Francaise. 

To intend for, destiner a. 

I intend my son for the church. Je destine mon fils k l'eglise. 



748 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

To interest one's self in, sHnteresser a. 

We interested ourselves too much Nous nous sommes trop interess6s 
in the fate of this young fool. au sort de ce jeune fou. 

To intermingle with, entremeler de. 

Your nosegay is intermingled with Votre bouquet est entremeU de roses. 
roses, jasmines, and camelias. de jasmins, et de camelias. 

To intersect with, entrecouper de. 

The State of Massachusetts is inter- I/Etat de Massassuchet est entre- 
sected with beautiful rivers and coupe de montagnes et de rivieres 
mountains. magnifiques. 

To interweave with, entremeler de. 

This orator has the bad habit of inter- Cet orateur a la mauvaise habitude 
weaving his discourses with mor- <¥ entremeler ses discours de mo- 
als, politics, and religion, so as to rales, de politique, et de religion, 
render them unintelligible. de maniere a les rendre inintelli- 

gibles. 

To intimidate with, intimider par. 

Do not think of intimidating me Ne croyez pas m'intimider par vos 
with your empty threats. ridicules menaces. 

To intoxicate with, enivrer de. 

To intoxicate a young writer with Enivrer un jeune auteur de lou- 
praises is to risk the loss of his anges. c'est risquer la perte de 
talent. son talent. 

To intrust with, Confier a. 

If you wish to keep a friend, never Si vous voulez garder un ami, ne lui 
intrust him with any important confiez jamais de secrets impor- 
secret. tants. 

To intrust to, confier d. 

I had intrusted my wife to your J'avais eonjii ma femme a votre 
honor, and you did not deserve it. honneur, et vous ne le meritiez 

pas. 

To invest with, investir de. 

The king has invested you with a Le roi vous a investi of'un poste 
very high office. bien eleve. 

To involve in, plonger dans. 

Through your mismanagement, I Par votre mauvaise administration, 
find myself involved in complete je me trouve plongd dans une 
ruin. ruine complete. 

To involve in, envelopper de. 

By my rashness I have involved Grace a ma folie y&ienvdoppe' votre 
your family in dangers of all famille de dangers de toute 
kinds. espece. 



REGIMEN OF VERBS. 749 

To inure to, endurcir a. 

In Poland women inure themselves En Pologne les femmes tfendurcis- 
to fatigues from infancy. sent a la fatigue des l'enfance. 

To inure to, accoutumer a. 

Children must be inured to the On doit accoutumer les enfants a la 
severity of the elements. severite des elements. 



2012. — J. 

To jest at, se moquer de. 

It is always wrong to jest at what II est toujours mal de se moquer de 
every one respects. ce que tout le monde respecte. 

To joy in, se rejouir de. 

Let us joy in the unexpected return Rejouissons nous du retour inespere 
of our lost friend. de l'ami que nous croyions perdu. 

To judge of, juger de. 

One is always mistaken, when one On se trompe toujours quand on 
judges of others by himself. juge des autres d'apres soi. 

To judge from, juger d'apres. 

A wise man never judges from ap- L'homme sage ne juge jamais 
pearances. d'apres les apparences. 



2013. — K. 

To kick at, faire un mouvement du pied dans Vintention 

de f rapper. 

Alnaschar in his dream kicked at Alnaschar dans son reve donna un 
his basket, and broke the contents coup de pied a son panier, et brisa 
into ten thousand pieces. les objets qu'il renfermait en dix 

mille pieces. 

To kindle at, prendre feu sur. 

Your dear sister kindles at every Votre chere soeur prend feu sur 
thing which belongs to love. tout ce qui tient a l'amour. 

To kneel before, s'agenouiller devant. 

When my soul suffers, I kneel be- Quand mon ame souffre, je ni'age- 
fore God, and feel relieved. nouille devant Dieu, et me sens 

soulage. 

To knock at, frapper a. 

If we knock at the door of paradise Si nous frappons a la porte du 
with a proper spirit, St. Peter paradis dans une disposition d'es- 
will open it to us. prit convenable, St. Pierre nous 

l'ouvrira. 
63* 



750 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

2014. — L. 

To load with, charger de. 

If you load your ship with furs and Si vous chargez votre navire de 
send it to China, you may expect fourrures et l'envoyez en Chine, 
a good return. vous pouvez esperer un retour 

avantageux. 

To laugh at, rire de, se moquer de. 

He is a fool, who laughs at what L'homme qui rit or se mocque de 
other people respect. ce que les autres respectent est 

un sot. 

To launch into, lancer a. 

The crew seized their captain and L'equipage s'empara du capitaine 
launched him into the sea with a et le lanqa a la mer avec un bou- 
shot at each of his feet. let a chacun de ses pieds. 

To lavish on, prodiguer &.* 

A father, who lavishes on his chil- Un pere qui prodigue a ses enfants 
dren all the luxuries of life, for- tous les rafinements de la vie, 
gets their future welfare. oublie le soin de leur avenir. 

To leer at, lorgner. 

A well-bred man never leers at a Un homme bien^eleve ne lorgne 
lady in the street. jamais une femme dans la rue. 

To liken to, comparer a. 

Those who liken Wellington to Ceux qui corn-parent Wellington b. 
Napoleon must be influenced by Napoleon doivent etre soumis a 
strong prejudices. l'influence de prejuges bien e- 

tranges. 

To line with, doubler de. 

I like crimson velvet curtains lined Palme les rideaux de velours cra- 
with white silk. moisi double's de soie blanche. 

To listen to, ecoater. 

A young girl, who listens to the Une jeune fille qui ecoute les doux 

sweet words of all those who pay propos de tous ceux qui lui font 

attention to her, runs the risk of la cour s'expose a etre souvent 

being often deceived. trompee. 

To live on, vivre de. 

I can point out among hundreds a Je puis distinguer parmi cent per- 

man who lives on vegetables alto- sonnes un homme qui ne vit que 

gether, by his sad, dejected, and de legumes, a son air triste, acca- 

sallow appearance. ble, a son teint jaune et livide. 

To live by, vivre de. 

A man who lives by his work is L'homme qui vit de son travail est 
always worthy of regard. toujours respectable. 



REGIMEN OF VERBS. 751 

To load with, charger de. 

With four horses like these one Avec quatre chevaux comme ceux-ci 

may load a wagon with goods to on peut charger un charriot de 

the amount of ten thousand dix mille livres de marchandises, 
pounds. 

To long for, avoir grand envie de. 

During the last illness of my wife, Pendant la derniere maladie de ma 
she longed so much for melons, femme, elle eut une si grande 
that I had to send to Havana to envie de melons, que je fus force 
get some for her. d'envoyer a la Havane pour en 

avoir. 

To long for, desirer avec ardeur. 

I long for your happiness, and that Je ddsire avec ardeur votre felicite, 
of those who surround you. et celle des personnes qui vous 

entourent. 

To look at, regarder. 

It is not forbidden to look at a II n'est pas defend u de regarder 

woman, but it is wrong to do it une femme, mais il est mal de le 

in such a manner as to raise a faire de maniere a la forcer de 

blush on her cheeks. rougir. 



2015. — M. 

To mark with, marquer de. 

A few years ago they marked the II y a peu d'annees en France on 
criminals in France with a hot marquait encore les criminels 
iron. d'un fer chaud. 

To marvel at, s'etonner de. 

People from the country marvel at Les gens de la campagne s'etonnent 
all they see as wonders. de tout ce qu'ils voient comme 

cTautant de merveilles. 

To maunder at, murmurer de. 

A good soldier does not think to Un bon soldat ne songe pas a mur- 
maunder at the severity of his murer de la severite de ses offi- 
officers. ciers. 

To meddle with, se meler de. 

There are people who cannot help II y a des gens qui ont la rage de 
meddling with others' business. se meler des affaires des autres. 

To meet, rencontrer. 

General K * * * met Judge M * * * Le general K * * * rencontra hier 
yesterday in the street, and killed le juge M # * * dans la rue et le 
him without ceremony. tua sans ceremonie. 



752 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

To meet with, trouver. 

In my last excursion in the wilder- Dans ma derniere excursion aux 
ness I met with Indians who regions inhabitees, je trouvai des 
spoke French well enough. Indiens qui parlent le Fran§ais 

assez bien. 

To menace with, menacer de. 

Russia menaced the Poles with all La Russie a menace la Pologne de 
her vengeance, if they dared to toute sa vengeance si ses habi- 
resist her despotic laws. tants osaient resister a ses lois 

despotiques. 

To metamorphose into, metamorphoser en. 

Acteon was metamorphosed into a Acteon fut mdtamorphosd en cerf 
dog for having dared to look at pour avoir ose regarder Diane 
Diana and her suite. et les nymphes de sa suite. 

To muffle in, affubler de. 

It seems rather too warm to muffle La saison parait trop chaude pour 
yourself, as you do, in a cloak vous affubler ainsi tf'un manteau 
trimmed with furs. garni de fourrures. 

To murmur at, murmurer de. 

When people murmur at the laws Lorsque le peuple murmure des lois 

of the country, it is rare that they du pays, il est rare qu'elles soient 

express the interest and will of l'expression des interets et de la 

all. volonte de tous. 

To muse on, rtver a. 

What are you musing on, that you A quoi revez-vous done, que vous 
do not perceive your friends wel- ne voyez pas vos amis vous sou- 
coming you ? haiter la bien venue ? 

To muzzle with, emmuseler avec. 

It is customary in France to muzzle II est d'usage en France d'emmuse- 
horses with small baskets to pre- ler les chevaux avec de petits 
vent them from spoiling the fields. paniers pour les empecher de 

gater les recoltes. 



2016. — N. 

To nibble at, grignoter. 

There is no great profit for him in II n'y a pas grand profit pour lui 
that affair, but there is still some- dans cette affaire, mais il y a de 
thing to nibble at. quoi grignoter. 

To nod to, faire signe de le tete a. 

I nodded to your brother in the Je Jis signe de la tete a votre frere 
street, but he did not notice me. dans la rue, mais il n'y fit pas 

attention. 



REGIMEN OF VERBS. 753 

To nominate to, nommer a. 

The President would fain nominate Le President voudrait bien nommer 

Mr. # * * to the French embassy, Mr. * * * a l'ambassade de 

but he is afraid that the senate France, mais il craint que le 

would reject him. senat ne s'y refuse. 

To nourish with, nourrir de. 

Revolutionary papers nourish the Les journaux revolutionaries nour- 

people with doctrines which are rissent le peuple de doctrines qui 

far from being calculated to con- sont loin de devoir contribuer a 

tribute to their happiness. son bonheur. 



2017.— O. 

To object to, faire objection a. 

I do not object altogether to liberal- Je ne fais pas une objection com- 
ism, but I wish the introduction plete au liberalisme, mais je de- 
of its principles to be gradual. sire que 1 'introduction de ses 

principes soit graduelle. 

To obtain of, obtenir de. 

I obtained of the king the cross of J'ai obtenu du roi la decoration de 
honor for my son. la legion d'honneur pour mon 

fils. 

To obtrude on, donner a. 

You obtrude on my words a mean- Vous donnez a mes paroles un sens 
ing I never thought of. auquel je n'ai jamais pense. 

To obtrude on, faire accepter a. 

You have obtruded on my wife a Vous zvezfait accepter a ma femme 
present which she ought not to un present qu'elle n'aurait jamais 
have accepted. du recevoir. 

To occur to, se presenter a la memoire de. 

When I spoke of this fact, the re- Quand je vins a. parler de ce fait, le 
membrance of my father occurred souvenir de mon pere se presenta 
at once to Napoleon. sur le champ & la mtmoire de Na- 

poleon. 

To oppress with, accabler de. 

To oppress a man with the burden Accabler un homme du poids de ses 
of his obligations is not the way obligation n 'est pas le moyen de 
to dispose him to gratitude. le disposer a. la reconnaissance. 

To oppress with, opprimtr f/e, or accabler de. 

You oppress me with the over- [ Yo " S ^pprimez du poids acca- 
whelming weight of your superiJ v blant , de v ? l 7 re superwrite. 
ority. I ous m acca ^ ez " M poids msupport- 

(_ able de votre superiorite. 



754 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

To originate in, avoir sa source dans. 

My hatred for the French Revolu- Ma haine contre la Revolution Fran- 
tion originates in the death of so §aise d sa source dans le sacrifice 
many noble victims on its altars. de tant de nobles victimes sur ses 

autels. 

To overpower with, accabler de or accabler sous. 

You overpower me with the number Vous m'accablez du, or accablez sous 
of your favors. le poids de vos bienfaits. 

To overspread with, couvrir de. 

When the remains of Napoleon Lorsque les restes de Napoleon fu- 

were conveyed to the Invalides, rent amenes aux Invalides, le cer- 

the coffin was overspread with the ceuil etait couvert du plus beau 

most magnificent cloth that has drap qui ait jamais ete vu. 
ever been seen. 

To overwhelm with, accabler de or sous. 

When I made my appearance at the Quand je reparus a, le cour, apres 

court, after my exile, the royal mon exil, la famille royale m'ac- 

family overwhelmed me with the cabla des temoignages les plus 

most affectionate marks of their touchants de sa reconnaissance 

deep regards for my past ser- pour mes anciens services, 
vices. 



2018. —P. 

To paint with, peindre avec. 

David used to paint with great fa- David peignait avec la plus grande fa- 
cility, cilite. 

To paint in, peindre en or a. 

I wish to have my portrait painted Je desire avoir mon portrait pemt en 

in miniature. miniature. 

Men in general paint in oil better Les hommes en general peignent 

than in miniature. mieux a l'huile qu'en miniature. 

To pall with, rassasier de. 

The public has so palled this per- Le public a tellement rassasii cet 

former with applause, that he acteur rf'applaudissements, qu'il 

does not make sufficient exertions ne fait plus aucun effort pour 

now to deserve it. les meriter. 

To palm on, faire prendre a. 

We must palm this medicine on the II faut/atVe prendre cette medecine 
child without his knowledge. a l'enfant sans qu'il s'en doute. 



REGIMEN OF VERBS. 755 

To palpitate with, palpiter de. 

My heart palpitates with joy and Mon cceur, quand je vous \ ois, pal- 
fear when I see you. pite de peur et de joie. 

To pant for, palpiter de. 

We panted with anxiety for a glance Nous palpitions du desir de jeter en- 
at our country. core un regard sur notre patrie. 

To pant after, soupirer apres. 

The exile pants after the day when L'exile soupire apres le jour ou il 
he may see his country again. reverra sa patrie. 

To pant with, trembler de. 

When we saw the night approach- Quand nous vlmes la nuit approcher, 

ing, being alone in the midst of the seuls au milieu des bois, nous 

woods, we panted with fear and trembldmes de peur et de froid. 
cold. 

To part from, se separer de. 

It is always painful to part from II est toujours penible se s&parer de 

friends, but it is so much the more ses amis, mais ce l'est bien da- 

so, when we apprehend it may be vantage quand on pense ne jamais 

for ever. les re voir. 

To part with, se defaire de. 

I parted with my dogs and horses, Je me defis de mes chiens et de mes 
because fortune had deserted me. chevaux, parceque la fortune m'a- 

vait abandonne. 

To partake of, prendre part a, or participer a. 

I partake of your happiness at the Je prends part au or participe au 
return of your children. bonheur que vous eprouvez du re- 

tour de vos enfants. 

To participate in. (See To partake of.) 

To pave with, paver de. 

By paving the city of Boston with En pavant de bois la ville de Boston , 
wood, the city authorities have les autorites municipales ont ren- 
much benefited its inhabitants. du un grand service a ses habi- 

tants. 

To pause on, s^arrUer sur. 

Let us pause on this passage of the Arretons nous sur ce passage de la 
Scriptures, and reflect on it. Bible et reflechissons y. 

To pause at, s^arrUer a. 

I never pause at trifling obstacles, Je ne m>arrete jamais a une objection 
when I have a great object to ac- insignifiante, quand j'ai un grand 
complish. objet en vue. 



756 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

To peck at, bequeter. 

How pretty this canary bird looks, Que ce serin est joli quand ilbequete 
when he peeks at your hand ! votre main ! 

To peep at, regarder furtivement. 

Passing by the dining-room, I peep- Passant pres de la salle a, manger, 
ed at the table, regretting to be je rcgardai furtivement la table, 
excluded from its joys. regrettant amerement d'etre ex- 

clus de ses joies. 

To peep into, regarder dans. 

I went to the theatre, peeped into Je fus au theatre, je regardai dans 
the room, but did not see any of la salle, mais je n'y vis aucune de 
my acquaintances. mes connaissances. 

To peep in at, regarder a travers. 

By peeping in at the doors, one may En regardant a travers les portes, 
often see what he does not like. on voit souvent ce dont on ne se 

soucie gueres. 

To pelt with, frapper de. 

When the laborers saw the troops Quand les travailleurs virent les 
coming, they pelted them with troupes venir, ils les frapperent de 
stones and all sorts of missiles. pierres et de toutes sortes de pro- 

jectiles. 

To penetrate with, penetrer de. 

Your disinterested conduct has pen- Votre conduite desinteressee a pini- 
etrated the country with respect tre le pays de respect et c?'admi- 
and admiration for your character. ration pour votre caractere. 

To perplex with, embarrasser de. 

Why do you perplex your soul with A quoi bon vous embarrasser l'esprit 
scruples which have no common de scrupules qui n'ont pas le 
sense in them ? moindre fondement ? 

To perplex with, embarrasser par. 

My examiner perplexed me with his Mon examinateur m'embarrassa par 

questions on animal chemistry, ses questions sur la chimie ani- 

which I had not sufficiently stud- male, que je n'avais pas suffise- 

ied. mment etudiee. 

To persevere in, per severer dans. 

In spite of all trials, I persevered En depit de touts les efforts, je per- 
in the faith of my fathers. several dans la foi de mes peres. 

To persist in, persister dans. 

When a man persists in his opinions Celui qui persiste dans ses opinions 

against the evidence of his being malgre l'evidence, est entete mais 

in error, he is obstinate, but not non pas consistant. 
consistent. 



REGIMEN OP VERBS. 757 

To pester with, importuner de. 

Why pester me with your lamenta- Pourquoi m'importuner de vos 
tions ? I cannot help them. plaintes ? je n'y peux rien. 

To pester with, importuner par. 

I tell you candidly that you pester Je vous dis franchement que vous 
me with your repeated questions mHmportunez tres fort par vos 
upon a subject which I do not like questions repetees sur un sujet 
to treat. dont je n'aime pas a m'occuper. 

To petrify with, petrifier de. 

You petrify me with awe by the re- Vous me pUrifiez de terreur avec vos 
cital of your battles. recits de batailles. 

To pierce with, percer de. 

I ran to the wild-boar, and pierced Je courus sur le sanglier et le per- 
him with my hunting-knife. gai de mon couteau de chasse. 

To pine at, se chagriner de. 

I pine at your sufferings, because I Je me chagrine de vos peines, par- 
cannot alleviate them. ceque je ne puis les alleger. 

To pine after, soupirer apres. 

A patient pines after health as the Le malade soupire apres la sante 
Jews after the Messiah. comme les Juifs apres le Messie. 

To pique one's self on, se piquer de. 

Our neighbours have piqued them- Nos voisinsse sont piques d'honneur 
selves on their honor and kept their et ont enfin tenu parole, 
word at last. 

To plague with, tourmenter de or par, or importuner de. (See 

To pester.) 

To plant with, planter de. 

The gardens of the king are planted Les jardins du roi sont planUs rf'ar- 
with trees of the rarest kind. bres les plus rares. 

To play on, jouer de. 

This fellow seems to know how to Ce garcon parait savoir jouer de 
play on all instruments. touts les instruments. 

To play at, jouer a. 

To play at cards is a wicked pas- Jouer aux cartes est un passetems 
time. coupable. 

To plunder of, depouiller de. 

Your soldiers have plundered me of Vos soldats m'ont depouilU de mes 
my horses, cows, &c. chevaux, de mes vaches, &c. 

64 



758 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

To point to, montrer du doigt. 

It is an impolite practice to point II n'est pas poli de montrer une per- 
to a person in a parlour. sonne du doigt dans un salon. 

To point at, montrer au doigt. 

The conduct of that man is such, La conduite de cet homme est telle 
that everybody points at him. que tout le monde le montre au 

doigt. 

To pray to, prier. 

I pray to God that your journey Je prie Dieu que votre voyage re- 
may be successful. ussisse. 

To preface with, faire preceder de. 

I intend to preface my grammar J'ai l'intention de faire precider ma 
with an explanation of my views grammaire rf'un appercu de mes 
on teaching. vues sur la maniere de montrer. 

To preserve from, preserve contre, or garantir contre, de. 

II est sage d'employer touts les 
moyens possibles pour se preser- 
ver les pieds contre le froid et la 
tete contre les ardeurs du soleil. 

II est sage d'employer touts les 
moyens possibles pour se garan- 
tir les pieds contre le froid et la 
tete contre les ardeurs du soleil. 

II est sage d'employer touts les 
moyens possibles pour se garan- 
tir les pieds du froid et la tete 
_ des ardeurs du soleil. 

To preside at, presider a. 

Eight gentlemen were appointed Huitpersonnesfurentchoisiespour 
to preside at the arrangements presider aux arrangements ne- 
for the ceremony. cessaires pour la ceremonie. 

To preside in, presider. 

Mr. M * * * presided in the senate Monsieur M * * * prhida le senat, 
last year with a great deal of l'annee derniere, avec un talent 
talent. remarquable. 

To preside over, presider a. 

Providence presides over all hu- La Providence preside anx actions 
man actions. des hommes. 

To presume on, presumer de. 

The captain presumed too much Le capitaine prisuma trop de la 
on the strength of his crew, they force de son equipage, ils peri- 
all perished in the hurricane. " rent touts dans la tempete. 



It is wise to resort to all possible 
means to preserve one's feet from 
cold, and one's head form the 
burning sun. 



REGIMEN OF VERBS. 759 

To presume from, supposer cPapres. 

I presumed from your narration Je supposais d'apr&s votre narra- 
that the inhabitants of the South tion, que les habitants des isles 
Sea were all cannibals. de la mer du sud etaient touts an- 

thropophages. 

To pretend to, pretendre a. 

To pretend to science does not Prblendre a la science ne prouve 
prove that one has any. pas que l'on en ait. 

To prevail upon, engager. 

If you could prevail upon the Irish Si pouviez engager (decider) les Ir- 

to give up drinking, you would landais a ne pas boire, vous leur 

accomplish a great deal in their rendriez un immense service, 
behalf. 

To prey upon, miner. 

This man's mode of living preys Le genre de vie de cet homme 
upon his constitution. mine sa constitution. 

To prey upon, ronger. 

Your ungrateful conduct towards L'ingratitude de votre conduite me 
me preys upon my heart. rongc le coeur. 

To prey upon, faire sa proie de. 

Consumption will soon prey upon La consumption fera bientot sa 
this poor young girl. proie de cette pauvre jeune fille. 

To pride one's self on, se piquer de. 

A man, who prides himself on do- L'homme qui se pique de faire tout 
ing every thing well, rarely gains bien, jouit rarement de la con- 
public confidence. fiance publique. 

To prize at, evaluer a. 

You prize your own merit at too Vous dvaluez votre meritea unprix 
high a rate to inspire confidence. trop eleve pour inspirer la con- 
fiance. 

To profane by, or with, proj aner par. 

He vvho profanes the place of wor- Celui qui profane les lieux saints 

ship by (or with) indecent Ian- par un langage indecent merite 

guage deserves the general con- le mepris general de la societe. 
tempt of the community. 

To profane with, profaner de. 

Voltaire did not hesitate to profane Voltaire ne recula pas devant 
the church with his impure l'idee de profaner l'eglise de son 
presence. impure presence. 



760 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

To profit from, profiter de. 

I have profited very much from J'ai bien prqfite de l'instruction qui 
the instruction which I have re- j'ai recue de mon maitre. 
ceived from my teacher. 

To provide with, pourvoir de. 

If you go to sea you must be pro- Si vous vous embarquez, pourvoyez- 
vided with good clothes and suit- vous de bons vetements et de 
able provisions. provisions convenables. 

To provide for, pourvoir a. 

A good captain ought to provide Unbon capitaine doit pourvoir avec 
carefully for the wants of his soin ii touts les besoins de son 
crew and passengers. equipage et de ses passagers. 

To provoke to, provoquer <x, or pousser a. 

In 1830 pamphlets of all kinds En 1830 des ecrits de toute espece 
were spread through the coun- furent repandus parmi le peuple 
try, in order to provoke the peo- afin de \e provoquer, de le pous- 
ple to resist the government. ser a la resistance contre le gou- 

vernement. 

To punish with, punir par . . . avec. 

The insurrection of Poland was L'insurrection de la Pologne fut 
punished by the Russians with punie par le gouvernment Russe 
the utmost severity. avec la derniere severite- 

To punish with, punir par. 

If you accomplish your threats, I Si vous accomplissez vos menaces 

shall punish you with all the je vous punirai par touts les 

means which circumstances may moyens que les circonstances 

require. pourront rendre necessaires. 

To punish for, punir de. 

Now that you have puished me for Maintenant que vous m'avez puni 
my faults, what have I to expect de mes fautes, qu'ai-je a attend re 
from your generosity ? de votre generosite ? 

To punish for, punir pour. 

My dear friend, I must punish you Mon cher ami, j'ai a vous punir 

not only for this fault, but for .all non seulement pour cette faute, 

those which you may commit mais pour toutes celles que vous 

hereafter. pourrez commettre plus tard. 

To purge from, purger de. 

The government ought to purge Le gouvernement devrait purger 
the mountains from the malefac- les montagnes des bandits qui les 
tors who infest them. infestent. 



REGIMEN OF VERBS. 761 



2019. — Q. 

To quake with, trembler de. 

From your appearance, we cannot A vous voir on ne peut dire si 
say whether you are quaking vous tremblez de peur ou de froid. 
with cold or fear. 

To quarter on, loger chez, or mettre en quartier chez. 

[ Par suite de la revolte de votre 
/^ u ra u 11 • c I village je logerai cinq hommes 

On account of the rebellion of your ( chez % h l cun % ses habitants. 

Par suite de la revolte de votre 
village je mettrai en quartier cinq 
hommes, &c. 



village, I shall quarter five sol-< 
diers on each of its inhabitants. 



2020. — R. 

To rack with, torturer or tourmenter par. 

In this disease the patient is al- Dans cette maladie le patient est 
ways racked with the most ex- toujours torture or tourmente par 
cruciating pain. des souffrances horribles. 

To rack with, torturer avec. 

The Spanish Inquisition used to L'inquisition Espagnole torlurait 

rack those whom they were ceux qu'il lui plaisait de nommer 

pleased to call infidels, with in- infideles, avec des instruments 

struments calculated to make calcules de maniere a leur faire 

the culprit suffer a thousand souffrir mille morts avant d'ex- 

deaths before expiring. pirer. 

To rage at, s'emporter contre, or tempeter contre. 

' Pourquoi vous emporter contre ce 

inn, a ^ * +u- rv u pauvre garcon avec une telle 

Why do you rage at this poor boy J * ? 

wl * ' I Pourquoi temptter contre ce pauvre 

l_ garcon avec une telle rage ? 

To rail at, vomir des invectives contre. 

I do not like to hear a minister of Je n'aime pas a voir un ministre 
the gospel rail at those who do de l'evangile vomir des invectives 
not worship God in the same contre ceux qui n'adorent pas 
way as himself. Dieu de la meme maniere que 

lui. 

To rail against, medire de. 

It is sometimes worse to rail against II est quelquefois plus mal de mi- 
a man than to calumniate him. dire flJ'un homme que de le ca- 

lomnier. 

64* 



762 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

To rail against, dire du mal de. 

By railing against others it is very En disant du mal des autres il est 
rare that a man benefits himself. rare qu'on se fasse du bien. 

To rap at, f rapper a. 

Who raps at the door with such Qui frappe a la porte avec tant de 
violence ? violence ? 

To rate at, evaluer a, or estimer c, 

If you rate your goods at such pri- Si vous evaluez, or estimez vos mar- 
ces, nobody will buy them. chandises aunprix si eleve,per- 

sonne n'en voudra. 

To rave at, s'emporter avec fureur. 

When he heard my remarks, he Quand il entendit mes observa- 
raved at me so as to make me tions, il shmporta avec une telle 
fear he would kill me. fureur contre moi, que je craignis 

qu'il ne me tuat. 

To ravish with, ravir de. 

I was ravished with the sounds Je fus ravi des sons que ma femme 
which my wife drew from her tira de sa guitare. 
guitar. 

To reave or bereave of, priver de. 

By reaving (or bereaving) me of En me privant de la liberty vous 
my liberty, you have destroyed avez detruit pour moi le prix de 
the value of my existence. l'existence. 

To recompense for, recompenser pour. 

By recompensing me for my past En me recompensant pour mes ser- 
services, you have gained my vices passes, vous vous etesassu- 
support for the future. re mon appui pour l'avenir. 

To reconcile to, rSconcilier avec. 

The devotion of Catholic mission- Le devouement des missionaires 
aries has reconciled many per- Catholiques a riconcilie bien des 
sons to their creed. gens avec leur culte. 

To recur to, revenir a. 

It recurs to me that I had forgot- II me revient a l'esprit que j'avais 
ten to pay you an old debt. oublie de vous payer une vieille 

dette. 

To recur to, avoir recours a. 

In order to accomplish his object, Afin d'accomplir ses vues, il eut 
he recurred to (or had recourse recours a des moyens infames. 
to) infamous means. 

To redeem from, racheter de. 

I redeemed from the jeweller the J'ai rachete du joailler les bijoux 
jewels which you had pawned to que vous aviez mis en gage chez 
him. lui. 



REGIMEN OF VERBS. 763 



To reflect on, reflechir a. 

The more I reflect on your affair, Plus je rtflechis a votre affaire, plus 
the better I think of it. elle m'inspire de confiance. 

To reflect on, reflechir sur. 

I have reflected much on our last J'ai beaucoup HJlechi sur notre der- 
conversation, and my opinion is, niere conversation, et je pense 
that you are in the wrong. que vous avez tort. 

To refrain from, s'abstenir de. 

Can you not refrain from swearing Ne pouvez-vous vous abstenir de 
without condemning yourself to jurer sans vous condamner au 
silence ? silence ? 

To refresh with, rafroichir de. 

If you refresh your horses with ice- Si vous rafraichissez vos chevaux 
water, you run the risk of killing rf'eau a la glace, vous courez le 
them. risque de les tuer. 

To refresh with, rafraichir avec. 

With which do you intend to refresh Avec quoi avez-vous l'intention de 
us to-night, ice-creams or Roman nous rafraichir ce soir, avec des 
punch? glaces, ou du punch a la Ro- 

maine ? 

To refresh by, rafraichir par. 

The atmosphere was made refresh- L'atmosphere etait rafraichi par 
' ing by a delightful breeze. une brise delicieuse. 

To reign over, regner sur. 

Napoleon reigned over the greatest Napoleon ngna sur le plus grand 
empire of the world, and lost it empire du monde, et le perdit par 
by ambition. son ambition. 

To rejoice at or in, se rejouir de. 

I cannot help saying, that my heart Je ne puis m'empecher d'avouer 
would rejoice at (or in) the hum- que mon coeur se rejouirait de 
bling of proud England. l'humiliation de l'orgueilleuse 

Albion. 

To release from, delivrer de. 

Death came, at last, to release Na- La mort vint, enfin, delivrer Napo- 
poleon from the grasp of his con- leon des serres de ses meprisables 
temptible gaolers. geoliers. 

To release from, degager de. 

By prosecuting my friend, you have En persecutant mon ami, vous 
released me from my word. m'avez degage de ma parole. 



764 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



To rely on, compter sur. 

You may rely on me dead or alive. Vous pouvez compter sur moi jusqu'a 

la mort. 

To remind of, faire ressouvenir de. 

I will remind you of your promise Je vous ferai ressouvenir de votre 
in time. promesse en temps et lieu. 

To remonstrate with, faire des remonstrances a. 

To remonstrate with a drunkard is Faire des remonstrances a, un ivrogne 
a waste of words. c'est semer ses paroles dans l'air. 

To repent of, se repentir de. 

A man who repents of his faults is L'homme qui se repent de ses fautes 
half forgiven. est a, moitie pardonne. 

To repine at, se chagriner de, murmurer de. 

Why should we repine at what we A quoi bon se chagriner de or mur~ 
cannot prevent ? murer de ce que l'on ne peut em- 

pecher. 

To replenish with, remplir de. 

We must replenish our barns with II nous faut remplir nos greniers de 
fodder, for winter seems to threat- fourrage, car l'hiver menace de 
en us with a long visit. nous faire une longue visite. 

To reproach for, with, reprocher. 

Why do you reproach me with (or Pourquoi me reprocher une fauteque 
for) a fault which I could not help je n'ai pu m'empecher de corn- 
committing ? mettre ? 

To request of, demander a, prier. 

I requested of your brother to render J'ai demand^ a or prU votre frere 
me a service. de me rendre un service. 

To require of, demander a. 

What I require of the court is, not Ce que je demande a, la cour, ce 
a favor, but an impartial appli- n'est pas une faveur, mais une 
cation of the law. impartiale application de la loi. 

To rescue from, delivrer de. 

I shall never forget with what Je n'oublierai jamais avec quel 
courage you rescued me from the courage vous m'avez dilivri des 
hands of the brigands. mains des bandits. 

To resolve on, se resoudre a. 

I am very happy to hear that you Je suis heureux d'apprendre que 
have, at last, resolved on taking vous vous 6tes, enfin, Hsolut a 
a companion in life. associer un homme a votre vie. 



REGIMEN OF VERBS. 765 



To resound with, retentir de. 

The forest resounded this morning La foret retentissait ce matin du son 
with the sounds of the horn. des trompes. 

To result from, resulter de. 

Your present illness results from Votre maladie actuelle rdsalte du 
your bad mode of living. mauvais arrangement de votre vie. 

To retrench from, retrancher de. 

If you retrench every day a meal Si vous relranchez chaque jour un 

from your diet, you will soon repas de votre regime, vous pren- 

accustom yourself to living with- drez bientot l'habitude de vivre 

out food. sans manger. 

To revenge on, venger sur. 

I revenge myself on your dinner, Je me venge swryotre diner du mau- 
for the poor breakfast which I vais dejeuner que je vous ai fait 
gave you. faire. 

To revenge one's self on, of, se venger de. 

(See the above example.) 

To reward for, recompenser pour. 

Must you be rewarded for inten- Faut-il qu'on vous recompense pour 

tions, perhaps good, but which des intentions, bonnes peut-etre, 

you never had courage enough to mais que vous n'avez jamais eu 

execute ? le courage de mettre a execution ? 

To reward with, recompenser de, par. 

The nation has rewarded your ser- La nation vous a recompense de vos 
vices with honors and dignities. services par des honneurs et des 

dignites. 

To rid of, debarrasser de. 

If you let me act, I will rid you of Si vous voulez me laisser agir, je 
this troublesome visiter. vous dtbarrasserai de ce visiteur 

importun. 

To rob of, voler. 

Two ruffians robbed me of my Deux coquins m'ont void ma montre, 
watch, pin, and purse. mon epingle, et ma bourse. 

To rouse from, tirer de. 

The cannon of Warsaw roused the Le canon de Varsovie tira les Po- 
Poles from their lethargy. lonais de leur letargie. 

To rouse to, exciter a. 

The people were roused to ven- Le peuple fut excite" a la vengeance 
geance by the exactions of the par les exactions des grands, 
great. 



766 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

To rouse to, animer a- 

Military music rouses soldiers to La musique militaire anime le sol- 
fight, dat au combat. 

To ruminate on, ruminer. 

On what are you ruminating there Que ruminez vous la, tout seul, 
in that corner ? dans votre coin ? 

To run at, courir sur. 

The wild boar we hunted last week Le sanglier que nous chassames la 
ran at me as soon as it saw me semaine derniere courut sur moi, 
coming. aussitot qu'il me vit venir. 



2021. — S. 
To sanctify with, sanctifier de. 

The Pope sanctified with his ap- I^e Pape sanctifia de son approba- 
proval the marriage of Napoleon. tion le mariage de Napoleon. 

To sanctify with, sanctifier par. 

The Pope sanctified with his pres- Le Pape sanctifia par sa presence 
ence the marriage of Napoleon. le mariage de Napoleon. 

To sate, satiate, saturate, with, rassasier de. 

You have satiated us so much this Vous nous avez tellement rassasiis 

winter with balls, and parties, and de bals, de soirees et de diners, 

dinners, that it is time for us to qu'il est temps que nous retour- 

go home. nions chez nous. 

To savor of, avoir le gout de. 

This cream savors of lemon and Cette creme a le gout du citron et 
vanilla. de la vanille. 

To savor of, sentir. 

Your handkerchief savors of Cologne Votre mouchoir sent l'eau de Co- 
water, logne. 

To scoff at, se moquer de. 

Why do you scoff at me, when I Pourquoi vous moquez-vous de moi, 
admire you so much ? qui vous trouve si belle ? 

To screen from, mettre a convert de. 

Your behaviour screens you from Votre conduite vous met a couvert 
calumny. de la calomnie. 

To secure from, mettre a Vabri de. 

We pretend in vain to secure our- C'est en vain qu'on chercherait a 
selves from slander. se mettre a Vabri de la medisance. 



REGIMEN OF VERBS. 767 

To set with, garnir de. 

The emperor of Russia presented L'empereur de Russie m'a fait 
me with a snuff-box set with present d'une tabatiere garnie de 
costly diamonds. riches diamants. 

To set with, planter de. 

Why don't you set your garden Pourquoi ne plantez-vous pas votre 

with green trees arranged with jardin rf'arbres verts, arranges 

taste ? they would produce a avec gout ? ils produiraient un 

handsome effect. effet admirable. 

To shake with, trembler de. 

When the poor devil saw the ghost, Quand le pauvre diable vit le reve- 
he shook with excessive fear. nant, il trembla de tous ses mem- 

bres. 

To shield from, proteger contre. 

The laws ought to be calculated to Les lois devraient etre calculees de 
shield the poor from the despo- maniere a proUger le pauvre 
tism of the rich. contre le despotisme du riche. 

To shiver with, trembler de. 

I saw you shivering with cold, Je vous ai vu trembler de froid, en 
going out of the ball-room. sortant de la salle de bal. 

To shock with, by, offenser par. 

Napoleon has shocked many ladies Napoleon a offense" bien des femmes 
by his abrupt manner of address- 'par sa maniere brusque de leur 
ing them. addresser la parole. 

To shoot at, tirer sur. 

I like to shoot at a stag at eighty J'aime a tirer sur un cerf a quatre- 
yards with a good rifle. vingts pas avec une bonne cara- 

bine. 

To shoot at, tirer a. 

The French infantry shoot at a L'infanterie Franchise tire a la 
mark every week. cible toutes les semaines. 



To shudder at, fremir de. 
dder at such a Qui ne fremirc 

To shudder at, fremir a. 

ddere 
im, 
thought he had killed. 



Who would not shudder at such a Qui ne fremirait rf'un tel crime ? 
crime ? 



The murderer shuddered at the Le meurtrier frimit & la vue de sa 
sight of his victim, whom he victime, qu'il croyait avoir tuee. 



768 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

To side with, prendre parti pour. 

When Napoleon came back from Quand Napoleon revint de Pile 
Elba, the army sided with him. d'Elbe, V&xmeeprit parti pour lui. 

To sigh with, saupirer de. 

At the sight of my beloved, I sighed A la vue de ma bien aimee, je sou- 
with happiness and love. pirai de bonheur et d'amour. 

To sigh after, soupirer apres. 

In 1814, the French nation sighed En 1814, les Francois soupiraient 
after peace and liberty. apres la paix etla liberte. 

To sigh at, soupirer a. 

A woman at forty sighs bitterly at Une femme de quarante ans soupire 
the remembrance of her youth. amerement au souvenir de sa 

jeunesse. 

To sigh for, soupirer pour. 

Ungrateful, you forsake me, when I Ingrat, vous m'abandonnez, quand 
sigh for you with the tenderest je soupire pour vous de l'amour le 
love. plus tendre. 

To smear with, barbouiller de. 

On the day previous to a battle, the La veille d'une bataille, les Indiens 
Indians smear their faces with the se barbouillent la figure des cou- 
most fantastic colors. leurs les plus bizarres. 

To smell of, sentir. 

A man who smells of tobacco should Un homme qui sent le tabac ne de- 
not dare to intrude himself into vrait pas oserse presenter dans la 
the presence of ladies. societe des dames. 

To smite with, frapper de. 

If you smite me with your club, I Si vous me frappez de votre baton, 
will blow your brains out. je vous brule la cervelle. 

To smother, etouffer de. 

When I heard the name of my king Quand j'intendis le nom de mon roi 
pronounced with so little ceremo- prononce avec si peu de ceremo- 
ny, I was near smothering with nie, je fus sur le point d'ttouffer 
rage. de colere. 

To snarl at, aboyer a. 

A cross dog is always snarling at Un chien hargneux aboye toujours 
every one who may come in his a celui l'approche. 

way. 

To snarl at, grogner a. 

Old soldiers cannot help snarling at Les vieux soldats ne peuvent s'em- 
seeing the epaulettes of a young p£cher de grogner a la vue des 
officer. epaulettes d'un jeune officier. 



REGIMEN OF VERBS. 769 

To snarl at, murmurer contre. 

A soldier avenges himself for the Le soldat se venge de la severite 

severity of discipline by snarl- de la discipline en murmurant en 

ing secretly at his command- secret contre ses chefs, 
ers. 

To snatch at, tdcher de s'emparer or de prendre avec la main. 

When I drew my pistol, my ad- Lorsque je saisis mon pistol et, 
versary snatched at it ; but I mon adversaire tdcha de s'en em- 
killed him before he could reach parer ; mais je le tirai avant qu'il 
it ait pu s'en saisir. 

To sneer at, temoigner du mepris a quelqu'un par ses regards. 

When the Queen of France heard Quand la reine de France entendit 
of the charges brought against les accusations que l'on osait 
her character, she could not help porter contre elle, elle Umoigna 
sneering at her accusers. par ses regards tout le mepris 

qu'elle portait a ses accusateurs. 

To soothe with, flatter de. 

When Napoleon was in a passion Lorsque Napoleon etait de mau- 

against any one of his house, vaise humeur contre quelqu'un 

Josephine soothed him with kind de sa maison, Josephine le Jiat- 

words, and always succeeded in tait de douces paroles et reussis- 

calming his temper. • sait toujours a. le calmer. 

To soothe by, calmer par. 

Henry IV. succeeded in soothing Henri IV. reussit a calmer la rage 

the rage of the inhabitants of des Parisiens contre lui, par les 

Paris against him, by his kind- secours qu'il leur fit parvenir 

ness to them during the time of durant le siege, 
the siege. 

To sow with, semer de. 

God has sown the path of life Dieu a seme 1 le sentier de la vie de 
with thorns. ronces. 

To sparkle with, etinceller de. 

The queen's dress sparkled with La toillette de la reine Uincellait 
diamonds and rich stones. de diamants et de pierres pre- 

cieuses. 

To speak of, parler de. 

A wise man speaks only of what Un homme sage ne parte jamais 
he knows to be true. que de ce qu'il sait etre vrai. 

To speak about, parler touchant. 

If you wish to speak to me about Si vous voulez me parler touchant 
this affair, come and see me. cette affaire, venez me voir. 

(Not used.) 

65 



770 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

To speckle with, tacheter de. 

This snake is speckled with the Ce serpent est tacheti de la ma- 
most beautiful spots. mere la plus brillante. 

To spit on or at, cracker sur or a. 

Boys, if you spit at {or on) my Enfants, si vous crachez sur mes 

dress, you shall be whipped. habits, vous serez fouettes. 

A man who spits at another's face Un homme qui crache d, la figure 

ought to pay for the insult with d'un autre doit payer l'insulte de 

his blood. son sang. 

To spot with, tacheter de. 

This white horse is beautifully Ce cheval blanc est tacheti de 
spotted with fawn-colored spots. fauve. 

To spread with, couvrir de. 

A good housekeeper likes to Une maitresse de maison aime a 
spread her table with fine linen couvrir sa table de beau linge et 
and bright plates. de vaisselle brillante. 

To sprinkle with, asperger de. 

During the ceremony of the burial, Pendant la ceremonie des fune- 

the friends of the deceased usu- rallies, les amis du defunt sont 

ally sprinkle the coffin with holy dans Pusage tfasperger le cer- 

water. cueil cTeau benite. 

To spur to, pousser a or exciter a. 

During the last years of the reign Pendant les dernieres annees du 

of the Bourbons, the opposition regne des Bourbons, l'opposition 

party used to spur the people to ne cessait de pousser or oV 'exciter 

rebellion. le peuple & la revolte. 

To stain with, tacher de. 

In committing the crime, the mur- En commettant le crime, le meur- 
derer stained his clothes with trier tacha ses vetements de sang, 
blood. 

To stamp with, empreindre de. 

By your cowardice you have stamp- Par votre lachete vous avez em- 
ed your name with shame and preint votre nom de honte et de 
contempt. mepris. 

To stamp with, noter de. 

He is a man stamped with public C'est un homme vote du mepris 
contempt. public. 

To stare at, regarder Jixement. 

The disguise of Lavalette was so Le deguisement de Lavalette etait 
complete, that, although the jail- tellement complet, que quoique 
er stared at him, he passed un- le geolier l'eut regarde Jixement 
detected. entre les deux yeux, il ne fut 

point reconnu et reussit a s'eva- 
der. 



REGIMEN OF VERBS. 771 

To steal from, voler a or deroher d. 

One day, during the divine service, Un jour, pendant le service divin, 

Vidocq stole from the church of Vidocq vola (J, or deroba ti, l'e- 

L *** all the sacred ornaments, glise de L*** touts les or- 

except those which the minister nements religieux, excepte ceux 

had on him. que le pretre avait sur lui. 

To stick over, coller sur. 

We were so poor, that we were Nous etions si pauvres, qu'il nous 

obliged to stick coarse paper over fallait coller du papier epais sur 

the crevices of the walls of our les crevasses des murs de notre 

cottage, to prevent the cold from chaumiere afin d'empecher le 

freezing us. froid de nous geler. 

To stick to, s'attacher a. 

A dog sticks to his master, whatev- Le chien s'attache d, son maitre, 
er may be the treatment he re- quelque soit le traitement qu'il 
ceives from him. recoive de lui. 

To stiffen with, voider de. 

During the campaign in Russia, Pendant la campagne de Russie, 
while our soldiers were stiffen- alors que nos soldats roidissaient 
ing with cold along the road, de froid le long des routes, nom- 
some of their generals were bre de leurs generaux couraient 
riding in good warm carriages. la poste dans de bonnes et 

chaudes voitures. 

To stifle with, etouffer de. 

At the last ball of the minister, we Au dernier bal du ministre, nous 
were nearly stifled with heat. fumes sur le point tfttouffer de 

chaleur. 

To stifle with, etouffer avec. 

I am stifling, with this cloak on my Vttoufft avec ce manteau sur le dos. 
back. 

To stimulate to, stimuler a or exciter a. 

If you wish to stimulate a child to Si l'on veut stimuler or exciter un 

work, reward him when he does enfant aw travail, il fautle recom- 

well, and punish him when he penser quandilfait bien, etlepu- 

does wrong. nir quand il fait mal. 

To stock with, garnir de or fournir de. 

It is easier to stock a store with II est plus facile de garnir or four- 
goods than to sell them at a nir un magasin de marchandises 
profit. que de les vendre avec benefice. 

To store with, munir de or garnir de. 

Before starting on a long hunt, it Avant de partir pour une longue 
is wise to store one's pouch with chasse, il est prudent de munir or 
provisions of all kinds. garnir sa carnassiere de toute es- 

pece de provisions. 



772 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

To storm at, tempeter contre or se dechainer contre. 

When Napoleon heard of the Lorsque Napoleon apprit la capi- 
capitulation of Paris, he stormed tulation de Paris, il tempeta, or 
at Marmont and at his brother se dechaina contre Marmont et 
Joseph, calling the one a traitor, contre son frere Joseph, disant 
and the other a coward. que l'un etait un traitre et l'autre 

un lache. 

To streak with, rayer de. 

If I catch the fellow, I will streak Si j'attrappe le drole, je le rayerai 

him with lashes, so as to give de coups de fouet, de maniere a 

to his skin the colors of the rain- donner a sa peau les couleurs de 

bow. l'arc-en-ciel. 

To strengthen with, fortifier avec. 

My doctor is a man of sense ; he Mon medecin est un homme de 

ordered me to strengthen my sens;il m'a ordonne de fortifier 

constitution with good wine and mon temperament avec de bon 

rich food. vins et des aliments savoureux. 

To strew with, parsemer de. 

His path through life seemed al- Sa vie sembla toujours parsemee de 
ways to be strewed with flowers. fleurs. 

To struggle with, lutter avec. 

Poland was not wise, when she La Pologne ne fut pas prudente 
attempted to struggle with the quand elle tenta de lutter avec le 
giant of the North. geant du nord. 

To struggle against, lutter contre. 

Religion teaches a man to struggle La religion apprend a 1'homme a 
with courage against adversity. lutter avec courage contre l'ad- 

versite. 

To struggle against, se debattre contre. 

It is in vain that man struggles C'est en vain que 1'homme se de- 
against his fate. bat contre sa destinee. 

To stud with, garnir de. 

The crucifix of St. Peter at Rome Le crucifix de St. Pierre a Rome 
is studded with magnificent est garni ofejoyaux magnifiques. 
jewels. 

To stuff with, farcir de. 

A turkey stufFed with truffles is a Un dindon farci de truffes est un 
delicious treat. rnets delicieux. 



To stuff with, rembourrer de. 

tuffs her dress La femme qui i 
_ht to be prose- ments de coto 
cuted as a counterfeiter. suivie comme contrefacteur. 



A woman who stuffs her dress La femme qui rembourre ses vete- 
with cotton ought to be prose- ments de coton devrait etre pour- 



REGIMEN OF VERBS. 773 



To stun with, etourdir de. 

The ruffian stunned me so with Le brigand m'ttourdit tellement 
his first blow, that I was not du premier coup que je pus ne le 
able to recognize him. reconnaitre. 

To subject to, assujetir a. 

It is monstrous to subject children II est monstrueux tfassujUir les 
to work during ten hours in the enfants au travail pendant dix 
day. heures. 

To succour with, secourir de. 

I had succoured this man with all J'avais secouru cet homme de tout 
my power, and he deceived me. mon pouvoir et il m'a trompe. 

To sue for, briguer. 

The greatest personages have al- Les plus grands personages ont 
ways sued for the honor of riding toujours brigue l'honneur de 
in the carriages of the king. monter dans les carrosses du 

roi. 

To suffer for, souffrir de. 

We sometimes suffer more for the Nous souffrons souvent davantage 
faults of others than we do for des fautes d'autrui que nous ne 
our own. le faisons des notres. 

To suffocate with, suffoquer de. 

We are suffocating with heat in On suffoque de chaleur dans cette 
this room ; why not open the chambre ; pourquoi ne pas ouvrir 
windows ? les fenetres ? 

To suffocate with, suffoquer avec. 

You must suffocate, with this corset Vous devez suffoquer avec ce corset 
laced so tight. si serre. 

To supply with, fournir de. 

America supplies nearly the whole L'Amerique fournit de coton la 
of Europe with cotton. presque totalite de l'Europe. 

To support with, soutenir de. 

Banks support with their credit Les banques soutiennent de leur 
most of their officers, to the credit la plupart de leurs em- 
detriment of the public. ployes, au detriment du public. 

To support with, soutenir avec. 

I have supported with courage J'ai soutenu avec courage la plus 

most of my misfortunes, but the grand partie de mes malheurs, 

ingratitude of those whom I mais l'ingratitude de ceux que 

believed my friends has over- jecroyais mes amis, m'a accable. 
whelmed me. 

65* 



774 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

To surfeit with, rassasier de. 

You have surfeited me so with Vous m'avez tellement rassasU de 

feasts, that I feel disgusted at festins que je me sens degoute a 

the mere idea of sitting at the la seule idee de me mettre a 

table. table. 

To surprise at, surprendre de. 

I am surprised at such candor Je suis surpris de tant de candeur 
united with such courage. unie a tant de courage. 

To surprise by, surprendre par. 

Napoleon always surprised his Napoleon surprit toujours ses en- 
enemies by the quickness of his nemis par la rapidite de ses 
operations. mouvements. 

To surround with, entourer de. 

Respect and habit had surrounded Le respect et l'habitude avaient 

our kings with an atmosphere entoure nos rois d'une atmosphere 

of seductions, which prevented de seductions, qui les empechait 

them from seeing the world as de voir le monde tel qu'il est. 
it is. 

To surround by, entourer par. 

In crossing the forest, our carriage En traversant la foret nous fumes 

was all at once surrounded by a tout a coup entoures par une 

gang of ruffians, who threatened bande de voleurs qui nous de- 

our lives if we refused to give manderent la bourse ou la vie. 
up our purses. 

To suspect of, soupgonner de. 

In 1814, the Bourbons knew well En dix-huit cent quatorze les 
that the officers of the army were Bourbons savaient bien que les 
regretting their old master, but officiers de l'arme regrettaient 
they did not suspect them of leur ancien maitre, mais ils ne 
treason. les soupgonnaient point de tra- 

hison. 

To swarm with, fourmiller de. 

The world swarms with individuals Le monde fourmille de gens qui 
who think themselves fit for se croient propres a tout, 
every thing.' 

To swear at, jurer contre. 

One half of the world swears at La moitie du monde jure contre 
the other. Tautre moitie. 

To swear by, jurer par. 

Louis the Eleventh swore by the Louis l'Onze jurait par la Vierge 

Holy Virgin and the Holy Spirit, et le St. Esprit, qu'il ferait 

that he would hang all those pendre tous ceux qui oseraient 

who should dare to oppose him. lui register. 



REGIMEN OF VERBS. 775 

2022. — T. 

To talk of j parler de. 

He who talks boldly, even of what Celui qui parle hardiruent, meme de 

he does not know, is always sure ce qu'il ignore, est toujours sur 

to meet some fool ready to be- de trouver un sot dispose a le 

lieve him. croire. 

To talk about, parler de. 

It is always dangerous to talk too II est toujour dangereux de trop 
much about others. parler des autres. 

To tally with, s'accorder avec. 

With a wise man words always Chez un homme sage, les paroles 
tally with actions. s'accordent toujours avec les ac- 

tions. 

To tamper with, chercher a corrompre. 

In 1789 the people of the suburbs En 1789 les habitants des faubourgs 
tampered with the troops and chercherent a corrompre les 
succeeded too well. troupes et y reussirent trop bien. 

To tap at, frapper a. 

It is never proper to enter a lady's II n'est jamais bien d'entrerdans la 
room without tapping at the chambre d'une femme sans frap- 
door. per a la porte. 

To taste like, avoir le gout de. 

Oats, when boiled with milk, taste L'avoine, bouillie dans du lait, a 
so much like vanilla, that during un tel gout de vanille, que pen- 
the continental blockade ofNa- dant le blocus continental or- 
poleon they were generally used donne par Napoleon, on s'en 
in France in its stead. servait generalement pour la 

remplacer. 

To tax with, taxer de. 

Napoleon was taxed with cruelty Napoleon etait taxi de cruaute par 
by his enemies, but he was far ses ennemis, maisil etait loin de 
from deserving such an imputa- meriter une semblable imputa- 
tion, tion. 

To tear out of, arracher de. 

The claim which I had against Les droits que j'avais contre cette 

that woman raised such a passion femme, la mirent dans un telle 

in her, that I thought she would colere, que je crus qu'elle m'ar- 

tear my eyes out of my head. racherait les yeux de la tete. 

To tear from, arracher a. 

The wars of the empire tore so Les guerres de l'empire arrachi- 

many sons from the bosoms of rent tant de fils a leurs families 

their families, that all France que la France enti&re etait en 

was filled with wretchedness. deuil. 



776 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



To tease with, tourmenter de. 

It is hard to live at the South II est difficile de vivre au Sud sans 
without being teased with in- etre tourmente ^'insects de toute 
sects. espece. 

To tease with, tourmenter par. 

I am teased every night with the Je suis tourmente toutes les nuits 
buzzing of mosquitoes. par le bruit des moustiques. 

To teem with, etre rempli de. 

The fields were teeming with Les champs itaient remplis d'une 
crowds of happy children. foule d'heureux enfants. 

To tempt with, tenter avec. 

Do not think of tempting me with Ne croyez pas me tenter avec vos 
your brilliant promises, I will brillantes promesses, je resterai 
remain faithful to my duty. fidele a mes devoirs. 

To tempt by, tenter par. 

Eve was tempted by the devil, and Eve fut tenUe par le demon, et la 
the human race was condemned race humaine se vit condamnee 
to die. a mourir. 

To tend to, tendre a. 



The principles of Voltaire tend 
to the dissolution of society. 



Les principes de Voltaire tendent a 
la dissolution de la societe. 



To thank for, remercier de. 



A man who lives as a Christian 
cannot help thanking God, every 
day of his life, for the miracles 
which he incessantly accom- 
plishes for the welfare of the 
human race. 



L'homme qui vit en Chretien ne 
peut s'empecher de remercier 
Dieu chaque jour des miracles 
qu'il ne cesse d'accomplir pourle 
bien etre de la race humaine. 



To think of, penser a. 

Who can think of God without Qui peut penser a Dieu sans avoir 
being filled with respect and l'ame remplie de respect et d'ad- 
admiration ? miration ? 

To thirst for, etre alter e de, avoir soif de. 



As a tiger thirsts for the blood of 
his victims, so man, when excited 
to revenge, thirsts for the 
blood of his enemy. 



De meme que le tigre est altere du 
sang de ses victimes, de meme 
l'homme, pousse par la ven- 
geance, a soif du sang de ses 
ennemis. 



To thirst after, desirer ardemment. 



We thirst, to-day, after that which 
we do not care for to-morrow. 



Nous desirons ardemment aujour- 
d'hui ce dont nous ne nous sou- 
cions plus demain. 



REGIMEN OF VERBS. 777 

To threaten with, menacer de. 

The French revolution threatened La revolution Francais menagait la 

society with total destruction societe rf'une destruction cotn- 

but God sent Napoleon who plette, mais Dieu envoya Napo- 

raised it from its ruins. leon qui la releva de ses ruines. 

To throw, jeter a. 

He who throws a small stone at his L'homme qui jette une petite pierre 
neighbour runs the risk of re- a son voisin, s'expose a en re- 
ceiving a big one in return. cevoir une grosse en echange. 

To thunder against, tonner contre. 

When fanaticism was thundering Lorsque le fanatisme tonnait contre 

against the discoverer of the mo- l'auteur de la decouverte du 

tion of the earth, he used to say mouvement de la terre, il repon- 

with a smile ; They may thunder dait avec un sourire ; ils peuvent 

against me, that will not prevent tonner contre moi tant qu'ils vou- 

the earth from turning. dront, cela n'empechera pas la 

terre de tourner. 

To tip with, couvrir de. 

It is always prudent to tip a foil II est toujours sage de couvrir de 
with leather, for fear of accident. cuir le bout d'un fleuret, dans la 

crainte des accidents. 

To tire with, fatiguer de. 

A woman, who tires her husband La femme qui fatigue son mari de 

with continual grumbling, runs plaintes continuelles, court le 

the risk of seeing him deserting risque de la voir deserter la mai- 

his home and going elsewhere son et aller ailleurs chercher des 

to seek amusements. distractions. 

To tire with, ennuyer de. 
(See the above example.) 

To torment with, tourmenter de. 

During its passage through the Pendant son passage a travers le 
desert, the army was tormented desert l'armee fut tourmentee 
with an intolerable thirst. d'une soif insupportable. 

(See the verb To tease.) 

To torture with, torturer de. 

Why do you torture me with your Pourquoi me torturer de votre ridi- - 
ridiculous jealousy ? you will cule jalousie ? vous me ferez 
put me out of temper. perdre la tete. 

To touch with, toucher de. 

Napoleon was touched with the Napoleon fut touche des pleurs de 
tears of the Countess Polignac, Madame la Comtesse de Poli- 
and pardoned her husband. gnac et pardonna a son mari. 



778 FRENCH GRAMMAR, 



To trade in, /aire commerce de. 

The Chinese will trade in opium, Les Chinois feront le commerce de 
in spite of all the laws and for- l'opium, en depit des lois et des 
ces of the empire. forces de l'empire. 

To train to, dresser a. 

The English do not train their dogs Les Anglais ne dressent pas leurs 
to bring in the game after it is ehiens au rapport, 
killed. 

To train to, exercer a. 

We must train our children to work On doit exercer les enfants au travail 
when they are young. quand ils sont jeunes. 

To transport with, transporter de. 

Napoleon was transported with Napoleon fut transports de fureur 
rage when he heard of the ca- quand il apprit la capitulation de 
pitulation of Paris. Paris. 

To treat with, regaler de. 

When on the seashore, we used to Quand nous demeurions au bord de 
treat our visiters with fresh fish la mer, nous regalions nos amis 
and green oysters. d'huitres vertes et de poisson 

frais. 

To trespass on, abuser de. 

Courtiers too often trespass on the Les courtisans dbusent trop souvent 
kindness of their master. des bontes de leur maitre. 

To trespass on, transgresser. 

He who trespasses on the ^laws of L'homme qui transgresse les lois 
his country is a bad citizen. de son pays est un mauvais ci- 

toyen. 

To triumph over, triompher de. 

Louis the Eighteenth found not Louis Dix-huit n'eut pas grand 

much difficulty in triumphing mal hh-iompher desscrupules des 

over the scruples of Napoleon's grands officiers de Napoleon, 
great officers. 

To triumph in, triompher de. 

Wellington triumphed too much in Wellington a trop triomphe" de ses 
his successes at Waterloo, but succes a Waterlo, mais la pos- 
posterity will do justice to all. terite se chargera de retablir les 

faits. 

To trouble with, importuner de. 

If you come and trouble me any Si vous venez m* importuner encore 
more with your lamentations, I de vos doleances, je vous ferai 
will shut my door against you. fermer ma porte. 



REGIMEN OF VERBS. 779 

To trouble with, importuner avec. 

I tell you, honestly, you trouble Je vous le dis tout-net, vous rn'im- 
me with your lamentations. portunez avec vos lamentations. 

To trust in, mettre sa conjiance en. 

He who trusts in God lives quiet L'homme qui met sa conjiance en 
and happy. Dieu, vit heureux et tranquille. 

To trust to, se Jier a. 

Louis the Eighteenth trusted to Louis Dix-huit se Jia au Marechal 

Marshal Ney to go and fight Na- Ney du soin d'aller combat- 

poleon ; he was betrayed, and tre Napoleon ; il fut trahi et le 

Ney paid for his treason with his Marechal paya sa trahison de sa 

life. vie. 

To twine with, entrelacer de. 

The crowns of kings are twined La couronne des rois est entrelacee 
with flowers, which hardly con- de fleurs qui cachent mal les 
ceal the sharp thorns, felt only epines dont les pointes aigues ne 
by those who wear them. sont que trop senties par ceux qui 

la portent. 



2023.-— U. 

To unite to or with, unir a. 

Louis the Fourteenth united with Louis Quatorze unissait & la ma- 
(or to) the majesty of a king the jeste d'un roi les graces d'un 
gracefulness of the courtier. courtisan. 

To unite with, s'unir a. 

If Austria, true to the laws of na- Si PAutriche, fidele aux lois de la 
ture, had united with Napoleon, nature, s'etait unie h Napoleon, 
he would have died on the throne. il serait mort sur le trone. 

To upbraid with, reprocher. 

When we upbraid others with their Reprocher aux autres leurs mau- 
evil dispositions, we do not prove vais penchants, ne prouve pas 
that we are any better. que nous soyons meilleurs. 

To urge to, pousser a. 

The bad example of parents has Le mauvais exemple des parents 
urged more than one child to a pousse plus d'un enfant au 
crime. crime. 



780 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

2024.— V. 

To value at, evaluer a. 

It is not always wise to value one's II n'est pas toujours sage d'evaluer 
services at too high a rate. ses services a un prix trop eleve. 

To varnish with, vernir de. 

I wish to have my table varnished Je desire que ma table soit vernie 
with japan. de laque de Chine. 

To veil with, voiler de. 

It is in vain that man would attempt C'est en vain que l'homme voudrait 

to veil his bad propensities with voiler ses mauvais penchants du 

the pretext of an irresistible in- pretexte d'une tentation irresisti- 

fluence, he cannot deceive the ble, il ne peut tromper l'ceil pe- 

watchful eye of God. netrant de Dieu. 

To vest with, revetir de. 

When a king vests a man with high Quand un roi revet un homme de 
dignities, he ought at least to be hautes dignites, il doit s'attendre, 
served with fidelity. au moins, a etre servi avec fide- 

lite. 

To vest in, mettre en possession de. 

When you shall be of age, the right Lorsque vous aurez atteint votre 
of property will vest in you. majorite, vous serez mis en posses- 

sion de vos droits. 



To vie with, rivaliser avec. 

; with the ox, Pour avoir essa 
lied so much, le bceuf, la p£ 
that he burst- fla tant qu'elle creva. 



In attempting to vie with the ox, Pour avoir essay e de rivaliser avec 
the poor frog swelled so much, le bceuf, la pauvre grenouille en- 



2025. — W. 

To wait for, attendre apres, attendre. 

The farmer sometimes waits for Le fermier attend souvent aprh la 

rain with as much desire as the pluie comme les Juifs attendent 

Jews are waiting for the coming aprts le Messie. 
of the Messiah. 

To warm with, itre echauffe par. 

The outside of the globe is warm- L'exterieur du globe est ichauffe 

ed with the rays of the sun, and par les rayons du soleil, et 1'in- 

the inside with the burning vol- terieur par le feu brfilant des 

canoes which it holds in its volcans qu'il renferme dans son 

bosom. sein. 



REGIMEN OF VERBS. 



781 



To warn of, avertir de. 



Man must always be ready to die, 
for death does not always warn 
him of its coming. 



L'homme doit toujours etre pre- 
pare a mourir, carlamort n'aver- 
tit pas toujours de sa venue. 



The king of Rome was wasting 
vrith languor at the thought of 
nis being condemned to live far 
away from his dear country. 



To waste with, deperir de. 

Le roi de Rome de'perissait de lan- 
gueur a la pensee de se voir con- 
damne a vivre loin de sa chere 
patrie. 



France wept many years for the 
loss of her good king Henry the 
Fourth. 



To weep for, pleurer. 

La France 
perte de 
Quatre. 



pleura longtems la 
son bon roi Henri 



To weep with, pleurer de. 



The old grenadiers wept with rage 
at the sight of their eagles, con- 
demned to retreat before the 
English leopards. 



Les vieux grenadiers pleuraient de 
rage a la vue de leurs aigles con- 
traintes de battre en retraite de- 
vant le Leopard Anglais. 



To weep over, at, pleurer sur. 



Who could refrain from weeping 
at (or over) the fate of France, re- 
duced, after so many victories, to 
greet her deadly enemies in her 
own capital ? 



Quel Francais n'eut pleure sur le 
sort de la France, condamnee, 
apres tant de victoires, a accueil- 
lir ses mortels ennemis dans sa 
capitale ? 



To wink at, faire signe de Vceil a. 



It is in vain that a husband winks at 
his wife to stop her from talking, 
when her temper is raised ; it 
would be better for him to at- 
tempt to stop water from running 
down hill. 



C'est en vain qu'un man fait signe 
de Vazil a sa femme de se taire, 
quand ses passions sont en jeu ; 
il lui serait plus facile d'empe- 
cher l'eau d'aller a la riviere. 



To wonder at, s'etonner de. 

People without experience wonder Les gens sans experience s'etonnent 
at every thing. de tout. 

To work on, at, travailhr a. 

He is constantly working at (or 11 travailte constamment d, ce vieux 
on) that old picture. tableau. 

To worry with, harasser de. 

I am at last worried with the noise Je suis en ve*rite harass^ du bruit 
of these naughty children. de ces vilains enfants. 

66 



782 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

To worry with, tourmenter de. 

My wife is constantly worried Ma femme est sans cesse tourmtn- 
with the idea that I shall desert tee de l'idee que je pourrais l'a- 
her. bandonner. 

To worry with, tourmenter avec. 

Why do you worry me with your Pourquoi me tourmenter avec des 
questions, which I cannot an- questions aux quelles je ne puis 
swer ? repondre ? 

To wound by, blesser de. 

My feelings are wounded by your Mes sentiments sont blesses de vos 
unkind remarks. remarques peu charitables. 

To wound with, blesser de or avec. 

In playing with your brother, I un- En jouant avec votre frere, j'eus le 
fortunately wounded him severe- malheur de le blesser severement 
ly with my foil. avec mon fleuret. 

To wrest from, arracher a. 

He attempted to stab me, but I II voulut me tuer, mais je lui arra- 
wrested the weapon from his chai le poignard des mains, 
hand. 



THE END. 



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